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第六章 与婚姻、财运、人际相关的智慧02

书名：
风水密码
作者：
张敏鹏
本章字数：
5632
更新时间：
2023-12-27 17:14:49

俞源世代书香，文化底蕴深厚，历代科举不绝，文人辈出。有文学家、地理学家、诗人、画家、书法家等，明清两代出过尚书、大夫、进士、抚台、知县、单人等，多达260余人。

俞源村现存宋、元、明、清四朝不同风格的古建筑395幢，1072间，占地面积3．4．万平方米，大多是坐北朝南，阳光充足。尚有堂楼、厅、阁、院、庙等，面积之大，为国内所罕见。这些古建筑中，到处可见龙的形象。

（3）按《内经图》规划的郭洞村

浙江武义县郭洞村因其“山环如廓，幽深如洞”，故名郭洞。

据《武义县志》记载，郭洞村的历史可以追溯到宋代。从何氏家谱中查知，郭洞村的发达在元朝。元至正十年（公元1350年），武义后生何寿之进山看望居住在郭洞的外婆，但见此地翠嶂千重，古木参天，碧溪双注，奇峰叠现，顿生迁居之意。后征得任广东按察司副使的祖父、和在朝做参军的外公及父母的同意，至郭洞筑宅置产。此后640余年，何氏子孙延绵不断，成为香火鼎盛的望族名门，形成了今天以何姓为主的总体格局。

据有关文献介绍，郭洞是按《内经图》设计布局的，郭洞分郭上、郭下两个行政村。郭洞的地形独特，三面环山，有两条溪水在这里汇聚，北面留一块空地，远处又是左右青山相拥，正应了“狮象把门”之说。又溪汇合后沿西山环村而流，回龙桥跨溪而建，把这块宝地的风水包裹得严严实实。千里外的石苍岭，北山上的塔和这座回龙桥几成一条直线，可见古人看风水造形势的一番苦心。桥边上的龙山上长满了树龄达六七百年的高大树木，还有许多难得一见的珍贵树种，属典型的古生态林。

郭洞村纳民居多为为明清时的建筑，保存完好，古朴精美。全村道路纵横有序，均以卵石铺地，晴雨皆宜。全村近两千口人，至今大多仍住青黑瓦的古建筑中。古朴大度的明代廊柱，精雕细刻的清代牛腿，受西洋风格影响的民国门窗，比比皆是。大片的古民居，虽然鲜有豪门深院，但村宅之完整，保存之完好，可以说是一部明代直至民国的建筑编年史。

（4）王家大院

被誉为“华夏民居第一宅”的王家大院，包括东大院、西大院和孝义祠，总面积34650平方米。

王家大院是静升王氏家庭耗费半个世纪（公元1762—1811年）修建而成的豪华住宅，总面积达15万平方米，共有院落54幢，房屋1083间。王家本为太原人，来灵石后落脚汾河沟营村。元皇庆年间（公元1312年），有位叫王石的年轻人迁至静升，即是静升王氏始祖。这王石以卖豆腐为生，为人忠厚，渐有积蓄。至千三世时其后代已是静升首户。个四世的王谦受、王谦和等五兄弟脑筋灵活，经商贩卖盐粮绸缎、杂货骡马。以后贸易由晋至蒙，行商坐贾，通过为官家购粮草又打通了黑白两道，官商联手一发不可收拾。康熙年间为静升王氏鼎盛时代，王家人通过科举、捐保、因袭等途径获五品至二品官员12人，授、封、赠各种大夫达42人之多，获康熙御赐龙头拐杖，乾隆赐黄马褂、银牌等。然王氏家庭自清朝道光年后逐渐衰落，不少族人弃商从官，贪图享乐，玩物丧志，甚至吸食鸦片变卖家产。祖上数代修建的万余平方米豪宅高家崖堡，仅以946两纹银售出；四家为了糊口将当年奉旨修建的大型石雕孝义坊和孝义祠，以区区2000吊铜钱卖出，一家仅得500吊钱。曾经轰轰烈烈的王氏家庭，600余年积累的庞大祖业很快付诸东流。

王家大院的选址十分科学。占据静升镇惟一居高临下的北山坡，一刚背阴抱阳；二则无水患、缺水之虞，坡间有一条南北向天然排水沟；三则宅后一派自然风光：夏日层峦叠翠，冬日素裹银装，凭高望远，镇中万物尽收眼底。两处大院信沟为界，西片称西堡院，叫红门堡；东片称东堡院，叫高家崖，两片之间跨沟有石桥相连，院后山坡最高处为王家祖坟。

王家大院东堡院，即高家崖建筑群，建于嘉庆初年至嘉庆十六年间，全封闭式。占地1728平方米，26座院落有房间212间，并列六路。中间三进为主院，西面两路为桂馨书院和花院，花院南屋花窖内有秘密暗道与各户相连，以备应急。东面为厨房。这些院落妙就妙在既成整体，又相对独立，前后左右院门竟达65道之多，令人如入迷宫。大院往东可达静升镇，往西可以石桥达西堡院。建筑后身有13孔窑洞，为全院最高处，为家丁居住。王家大院西堡院，即红门堡建筑群，建于乾隆四年至乾隆五十八年间。占地19800平方米，东西宽105米，南北长180米，28座院落有房屋834间。以中间主干道为轴心贯穿三条横巷，形成一个巨大的“王”字可谓匠心独运。全部院落只有先通过横巷，再转入主干道才能出去。主干道路面铺砌防冲刷的鹅卵石，不仅是唯一通道。还担负着汇洪功能。主体建筑在南端西侧，气宇轩昂，有高官大贾气派。各院落虽均为四合院却大小不一，功能各异，门廊千回百转，曲径通幽，正所谓“一关辖三门，三门通四院”，让人穿堂过巷，新意迭出，目不暇接。

王家大院不仅仅是一组民居建筑群，还是一座建筑艺术博物馆，它的建筑技术、装饰技艺、雕刻技巧鬼斧神工，超凡脱俗，别具一格。院内外，屋上下，房表里，随处可见精雕细刻的建筑艺术品。这些艺术品从屋檐、斗拱、照壁、吻兽到础石、神龛、石鼓、门窗，造型逼真，构思奇特，精雕细刻，匠心独具，既具有北方建筑的雄伟气势，又具有南国建筑的秀雅风格。这里的建筑群将木雕、砖雕、石雕陈于一体，姿态纷呈，各具特色，称得上北方民居建筑艺苑中的一颗璀璨明珠。王家大院是山西最大的保存完好的建筑群，称“三晋第一宅”。

1996年以后，灵石县投巨资修复，王家大院才得以同游人见面。1997年8月18日改为“中国民居艺术馆”之名正式开放红门堡建筑群。王家大院作为我国优秀的传统建筑文化遗产、居居艺术珍品，已广泛地受到国内外建筑学、历史学、社会学，伦理学和工艺美术、影视、摄影等方面的专家及新闻媒体的关注，成为一些高等院校的实习基地。

（5）盛唐的遗韵——唐模村

唐模古村位于举世闻名的黄山风景区南麓，徽杭公路和新安江的西侧，处于连绵起伏的群山环抱之中。它以秀丽的山水、优美的环境，大量的名胜古迹招来络绎不绝的中外游客。

唐模村，原为歙县所辖，现属徽州区，是唐朝越国公汪华的太曾祖父叔举创建的。公元923年，汪华的后裔汪思立迂回故乡，起先居住在山泉寺。年近古稀的汪思立博学多才，精于天文地理，他用八卦相中了山泉对面的狮子山，那里还有太祖叔举种植的大片郁郁葱葱的银杏树，故汪思立率儿孙迁到狮子山居住。经过几代人的辛苦劳动，先后建立了中汪街、六家园、太子塘等建筑物，逐步形成了一个聚族而居的村落。汪思立率孙重返徽州时正值五代年间后唐建立，诸侯纷争，强盛的唐朝已不复存在。汪氏子孙不忘唐朝对祖先的恩荣（即隋朝名将汪华归顺唐朝后被封为越国公，死后谥（“忠烈王”），决定按盛唐时的规摸建造一个村庄，取名“唐模”（一说按盛唐时的模式、风范、标准建立）。公元1087年，郡北许村的许贵一、许贵二兄弟俩因父母双亡，投靠唐模姑父家，经过几代繁衍，许氏比当地的汪、程、吴三姓人丁更为兴旺，成为唐模的大姓望族。但他们不忘姑父的收养之恩。仍沿用“唐模”这个村名。唐模村庄的形成、命名，是古代的徽州人重视风水与忠君思想结合的产物，深深地烙上了历史文化的印记。而经济活跃、民风淳朴的唐模村，在历史上曾被誉为“唐朝模范村”，是徽州历史悠久、人文沉淀深厚的文明古村。

唐模人在选择，营造完善生存空间，规划布局整体村落方面的创举更是徽州古村落之典范。由于历史、经济。自然条件的特殊性，使其得以保存了众多的徽派古建筑，其品位之高堪称徽州古建的杰出代表。

唐模景区分两大部分。其一为水街，唐模水街长达1100余米，因檀溪水穿村而过而形成了这条极具江南水乡色彩的水街，两岸分布着近百幢徽派民居，并形成夹道而建的街道市井。沿街有40余米长的避雨长廊，廊下临河设有“美人靠”，供来往路人休息。两岸之间架有10座形态各异的石质平桥，方便居民往来。沿街漫步，可以领略到唐模古村浓浓的古韵。凭栏临水，如置身清明街市之中，又似南京秦淮河一带风物。街区周围有古桥。古祠，古树，古井，可谓古韵悠悠；其二为水口园林——檀干园。檀干园建于清初，占地7余亩。唐模水街不仅是风水文化的产物，更是儒家文化精髓的集中体现。园内三塘相连，有三潭映月、湖心亭、白堤、玉带桥。笠亭等胜景。更令人流连忘返的是园中镜亭内的宋、元、明、清十八位名家的真迹石刻。这些石刻镌刻精致，气势恢弘。从村落中珍藏着的这些珍品中，可见徽商经济的繁荣乃南此带夹的文化昌盛。通过近几年的旅游开发，唐模以其千年古樟之茂、中街流水之美。“十桥九貌”之胜、名家石刻之雅、同胞翰林之誉而闻名遐迩，现已成为安徽省唯一一家“全国文明村”，安徽省“优秀文明示范景区”，黄山市十大景区之一。唐模避南长廊沙堤亭，又名八角亭、八卦亭，建于清康熙年间。在此有“设亭杀鲤鱼”的神话传说。在史无前例的“文革”时期，有人提出拆牌坊毁八角车作为兴修农田水利之材，这一提议使全村老者不约而同来到牌坊四周防守保护，才使此亭免遭破坏。

《同胞翰林》牌坊云此坊立于村东大道之中，为旌表村内许承宣、许承家兄弟二人于清康熙年间上京殿试，同时考中翰林而建，实为全国罕见。四柱三间，高达16米，三间开阔9．6米，四石狮、四石鼓、饰以禽、鱼、鸟、兽花纹图案和古人物图像，雕琢精致形象逼真。尤其两对石狮，雄者戏珠，雌者逗乐小狮，极为传神，戏舞之状栩栩如生，可谓巧夺天工。此石坊里面有宋，明清名家刻石十八块。

唐模老街铭德堂，据相传“铭德堂”建于清，嘉庆年间（公元1820年），此堂构造工艺具有徽派风格，显得庄重淳朴，有种和谐之美。前有天并明堂，宽敞明亮，幽静。

斗山街是一处集古民居、古街、古雕、古井、古牌坊为一体的文化游景点。在这条建于明清时期的古街上，建有徽商家族住宅：汪氏住宅，杨家大院。许氏大院和潘家大院，有徽派木、石雕的代表作，还有仅存的木牌坊等。斗山街，犹如一幅长长的历史画卷，向来客讲述着唐模古镇的历史。

（6）独步一方的呈坎

被朱熹誉为“呈坎双贤里，江南第二村”的呈坎村是皖南徽州著名古村，是安徽省历史文化保护区，也是我国当今保存最完好的古村落之一。

据清代罗兴（呈坎沿革）文中介绍：“呈坎地属歙县，原名龙溪。在隋时为荒壤，至唐末始草创为村，改日呈坎。”呈坎四面高山耸立，中间为由北向南流的众川河，村庄就在四山夹一河的盆地当中，地形呈现出八卦之坎方。（罗氏族谱）也记载：“豫章（今南昌）柏林罗氏堂兄弟天秩（号秋隐）、天真（号文昌）于唐末迁居金陵之鸡公山。相传长春山有炼丹台遗址，天尊曾炼丹于此。天秩。天真二公深明堪舆之学，察其地，众水环抱，丰山挺秀，知后必能兴旺，于是定居下来，并改村名龙溪为呈坎。”

呈坎村坐落在黄山。屯溪，歙县、岩寺呈“T”字形的中间位置。依山傍河而建，座西朝东，背靠大山，地势高爽，选址完全符合“枕山、环水、面屏”的古代风水理论。整个村落按《易经》“阴（坎）阳（呈）二气统一，天人合一”的理论选址布局。后人至今仍不解其中奥秘。两条水圳引众川河水穿街走巷，现仍发挥着消防、排水、泄洪、灌溉等功能，形成二圳五街九十九巷，宛如迷宫。村中仅明代建筑就有28处，有的房子楼高三层，门楼气派，显示户主当年的身份显赫。而那些精致的徽州三雕、铺了地砖的二层楼，更让游人流连忘返。由于选址审慎、布局合理、精心设计、施工、古村与自然环境和谐统一，以山为本，以水为魂的山水田园特色显著。

呈坎的五条街大体和众川河平行，延展呈南北走向，小巷与大街垂直，呈东西走向。街巷全部由花岗条石铺筑，两侧民宅鳞次栉比，纵横相接，排列有序。青墙黛瓦，高低错落，黑白相间，淡雅清秀。长街短巷，犬牙交错。漫步街头，一步一景，步移景异。

呈坎古村保存至今的明代建筑，虽遭大量破坏，但仍占黄山市首位，古村目前有宋代、元代建筑各一幢，明清建筑130多幢，有国家级文物保护单位22处，有省级文物保护单位50处，还有董其昌、林则徐等历代名人题写的牌匾30余块。现有明清建筑不仅数量大，而且祠堂、民居、更楼、石桥类型多样，仅三层楼民居现仍保存7幢，其精湛的工艺及巧夺天工的石雕、砖雕、木雕把古、大、美，雅的徽派建筑艺术体现得淋漓尽致，美不胜收。

人杰地灵的呈坎，历史上科甲不断，人文荟萃，文化沉淀极为深厚。苏东坡在《罗氏族谱》题辞中有“文德武功名留简竹，理学真儒后先继续”的评说。如宋代吏部尚书罗汝楫、安徽省第一部地《新安志》作者罗愿、元代国子监祭酒罗绮、制墨大家罗龙文、地理学家罗洪先、扬州八怪后起之秀罗聘、近现代孙中山秘书罗会坦，文物鉴赏家罗长铭等。

宝纶阁：亲眼目睹宝纶阁的雄姿是大多数人前来呈坎的原因和目的。该阁为全国重点文物保护单位，原名“贞静罗东舒先生祠”，始建于明嘉靖间（约公元1542年），后殿几层因遇事中辍，70年后重新扩建。古祠占地五亩余、分前、中、后三进、五层山墙、层层升高，显得气势宏伟威武。第一进为仪门，第二进为大厅，堂上匾额为明代著名书法家董其昌所书。大厅高大的板门照壁后又是—个天井，其后第三间才是宝纶阁。

宝纶阁是整个祠堂的精华部分，相传主持续建此祠的罗应鹤，是明万历年间深得明神宗宠信的官员，他在这里供奉圣旨与收藏御赐珍品，“宝纶阁”因此得名。

宝纶阁由3个三开间构成，加上两头的楼梯间，共11开间，吴士鸿手书的“宝纶阁”匾额高挂楼檐。天井与楼宇间由黟县青石板栏杆相隔，石栏板上饰有花草、几何图案浮雕，三道台阶扶栏的望柱头上均饰以浮雕石狮。台阶上10根面向内凹成弧形的石柱屹立前沿，几十根圆柱拱立其后，架起纵横交错的月梁。圆穹形的屋面和飞扬的檐角，梁柱之间的斗云朵雕，镂空的梁头替木和童柱，荷花托木雕，令人眼花缭乱，美不胜收。横粱上彩绘图案优美、色彩绚丽，虽历四百余年，至今仍鲜艳夺目，历久不凋。

宝纶阁左右两边为登楼的楼梯，登上30级木台阶，只见楼上排列整齐的圆木柱，屋顶阁栅外露，饰以水磨青砖。此处为呈坎村的最高点，可远眺黄山天都、莲花两峰烟云。

宝纶阁以巧妙的结构，精致的雕刻，绚丽的彩绘，集古、雅、伟、美为一体，堪称明代古建筑一绝。

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资本论

《资本论》是德国思想家卡尔·马克思创作的政治经济学著作，全书以剩余价值为中心，对资本主义进行了彻底的批判。 作品理论深奥，知识渊博，从资本的生产到资本的流通，深刻揭示了资本运行的基本原理，展现了资本的本质和力量，全面剖析了资本主义的社会经济形态。 马克思在《资本论》中以唯物史观的基本思想作为指导，通过深刻分析资本主义生产方式，揭示了资本主义社会发展的规律，并使唯物史观得到科学验证和进一步的丰富发展。 《资本论》跨越了经济、政治、哲学等多个领域，是全世界无产阶级运动的思想指导。 《资本论》被誉为马克思一生最伟大的主要理论著作，是马克思主义理论宝库中光辉灿烂的科学巨著，被誉为“工人阶级的圣经”。
已完结，累计39万字 | 最近更新：第三章

第一章

书名：
资本论
作者：
(德)卡尔·马克思著
本章字数：
80307

图书在版编目（CIP）数据资本论=CAPITAL/（德）卡尔·马克思著；（美）塞缪尔·摩尔（SamuelMoore）译.—沈阳：辽宁人民出版社，2020.6（最经典英语文库.第十三辑）ISBN978-7-205-09890-2Ⅰ.①资…Ⅱ.①卡…②塞…Ⅲ.①英语—语言读物②马克思著作—马克思主义政治经济学Ⅳ.①H319.4：A中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2020）第083263号出版发行：辽宁人民出版社地址：沈阳市和平区十一纬路25号邮编：110003电话：024-23284321（邮购）024-23284324（发行部）传真：024-23284191（发行部）024-23284304（办公室）http://www.lnpph.com.cn印刷：辽宁新华印务有限公司幅面尺寸：105mm×175mm印张：23.75字数：798千字出版时间：2020年6月第1版印刷时间：2020年6月第1次印刷特约编辑：张放责任编辑：顾宸封面设计：琥珀视觉责任校对：吉拉书号：ISBN978-7-205-09890-2定价：80.00元（全两册）

今天很有必要重温《资本论》——“最经典英语文库”第十三辑之《资本论》导读玉麒卡尔·马克思（1818—1883），德国哲学家、经济学家、历史学家、社会学家、政治理论家、社会主义革命家。马克思是全世界无产阶级和劳动人民的革命导师，是马克思主义的主要创始人，是马克思主义政党的缔造者和国际共产主义的开创者，是近代以来最伟大的思想家。

马克思创立的哲学思想为历史唯物主义，其最大愿望是对于个人的全面而自由的发展。马克思创作了经济理论著作《资本论》，确立他的阐述原则是“政治经济学批判”。马克思认为，这是“政治经济学原理”的东西。马克思主义学说被认为是指引全世界劳动者为实现社会主义和共产主义理想而进行斗争的理论武器和行动指南。

马克思出生于德国特里尔城的一个律师家庭，曾在大学里专修法律和哲学。由于发表了一些政论出版物，被迫流亡英国伦敦。也正是在伦敦，他与德国思想家恩格斯合作，以继续发展自己的思想。他最著名的作品包括1848年出版的小册子《共产党宣言》，以及三卷本的《资本论》。您眼前的这本《资本论》是第一卷，也是马克思生前亲眼看到其出版面世的唯一卷本。总体而言，他的政治与哲学思想对后世的思想、经济和政治历史产生了极大影响力。他的名字作为形容词、名词以及一种社会理论的代名词，被广泛使用。

马克思对社会学、经济学和政治学的诸多批判理论（统称为“马克思主义”）主要强调的观点是：人类社会是经过阶级冲突而发展的。在资本主义社会，主要表现为，掌握生产工具的统治阶级（亦称：资产阶级）与通过使用那些工具，出卖劳动力从而换回工资的普罗大众（亦称：无产阶级）之间的冲突。马克思运用一种叫作“历史唯物主义”的批评手段，作出惊世预言：与以往的社会—经济体系别无二致，资本主义同样会在内部产生激化，这种激化最终导致自我毁灭，取代它的是一个崭新的体系，它叫：社会主义。

《资本论》是马克思用德语写作，由弗里德里希·恩格斯等编辑的一部政治经济学著作。这本第一卷最初出版于1867年，可以说，这部作品对资本主义进行了批判性的分析，对日后社会科学和人文科学的诸多领域产生了巨大的深远的影响。

马克思在这本《资本论》第一卷中，对古典经济学家的理论进行了仔细的分析和批判，并且提出自己的新观点。他的思想根源之一是黑格尔的辩证法，他也受到了法国社会主义者傅立叶、圣西门，以及无政府主义者普鲁东等人的影响。马克思认为他的目的是“用辩证的方法，经过批判，得出一个科学的结论”，通过分析资本主义的发展过程，找出现代社会的运动规律，为现代工人运动提供科学的依据。《资本论》也因此是社会科学研究领域被最常引用的书籍之一。马克思的另一个重要思想根源是以亚里士多德为代表的古希腊哲学。很多人认为马克思对资本三段论式的分析框架，深受亚里士多德政治学的影响。

《资本论》讨论了商品和价值的定义，承认商品的价值分为实用价值和交换价值，具有客观的有用性，并且认为劳动是衡量不同商品价值量的唯一标准。更为重要的是，马克思认为资本主义发展的动力，源于资本在生产过程中，对劳动者的剥削和异化，并从中发现了“剩余价值”。也就是说，资本只有不停地榨取劳动力才能获得发展，资本家为了追求利润的最大化以获取最多剩余价值，会刻意压低劳动者的工资，使工资保持在一个仅能维持劳动者生存，并使人口得以增长的较低水平。同时，资本家之间存在近乎你死我活的激烈竞争，竞争力较弱的中小企业逐渐失势，被强势的企业吞并或击垮，这使得小资产阶级逐渐沦为无产阶级，资产阶级在人口的比例中下降，无产阶级的比例在相应上升。由此导致社会最终被割裂为两个利益直接对立的阶级，社会矛盾不断产生，经济危机随时爆发。最关键的问题是，这些致命的问题，在那样一种制度下，根本无法得到彻底解决。也即是说，这是一种社会的经济发展规律。它犹如自然科学一样，不以人的意志而转移。更不能幻想通过改变所谓的“上层建筑”，使社会进行跨越式发展。经过潜心二十年时间对经济的研究和准备工作，尤其是经过对剩余价值理论的研究，马克思写就的这本《资本论》第一卷于1867年正式出版面世。不过，最开始出版的书名叫《资本的生产过程》。1883年，马克思逝世。1885年，恩格斯将马克思的草稿进行了编辑与整理，出版了第二卷，书名为《资本的流通过程》，接着又过了将近十年时间，恩格斯于1894年出版了第三卷：《资本生产的全过程》。此外，卡尔·考茨基利用1905年到1910年五年时间，编辑并出版了《剩余价值理论》，列为第四卷。《资本论》是马克思按照层层递进的辩证逻辑撰写的，因为出版周期长达一个世纪，在人们能获得全书之前，已经根据最早出版的第一卷形成了所谓“经典化、公式化”的理解，从而妨碍了人们对马克思真正意图的理解。

今天，很多经济史学家看重《资本论》在思想史和经济史上的文献价值。而历史和现实则证明了《资本论》的价值。近年来，由于不断发生经济危机，《资本论》销量开始大幅上升。

TheBedsideClassicsofWorldLiterature,PhilosophyandPsychologyDesignedtomakeallEnglishclassicworksavailabletoallreaders,TheBedsideClassicsbringyoutheworld’sgreatestliterature,philosophy,psychologybooksthathavestoodthetestoftime–atspeciallylowprices.Thesebeautifullydesignedbookswillbeproudaddictionstoyourbookshelf.You’llwantallthesetime-testedclassicsforyourownreadingpleasure.ThetitlesofthethirteenthsetofTheBedsideClassicsare:ALittlePrincessbyFrancesHodgsonBurnettCapitalVol.IbyKarlMarxLaCousineBettebyHonorédeBalzacDemocracyinAmericaVOL.IIbyAlexisdeTocquevilleEugèneOneginbyAlexanderPushkinIntheWorldbyMaksimGorkyLesMisérablesVolume4of5VolumesbyVictorHugoMainStreetbySinclairLewisManifestooftheCommunistPartybyKarlMarxandFrederickEngelsSiddharthabyHermannHesseTheAdventuresofPinocchiobyCarloCollodiTheFablesofLaFontainebyJeandelaFontaineTheLittlePrincebyAntoinedeSaint-ExupéryThePortraitofaLadyVolume2byHenryJamesTheSocialContractbyJean-JacquesRousseauFortheonlineorder,pleaseusethe2-dimentionalbarcodesonthebackcover.Orcall024-23284321,024-23284325.

CONTENTS1CONTENTSPART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEYCHAPTER1:COMMODITIES/3CHAPTER2:EXCHANGE/71CHAPTER3:MONEY,ORTHECIRCULATIONOFCOMMODITIES/85PART2:TRANSFORMATIONOFMONEYINTOCAPITALCHAPTER4:THEGENERALFORMULAFORCAPITAL/163CHAPTER5:CONTRADICTIONSINTHEGENERALFORMULAOFCAPITAL/177CHAPTER6:THEBUYINGANDSELLINGOFLABOUR-POWER/1942CAPITALPART3:THEPRODUCTIONOFABSOLUTESURPLUS-VALUECHAPTER7:THELABOUR-PROCESSANDTHEPROCESSOFPRODUCINGSURPLUS-VALUE/211CHAPTER8:CONSTANTCAPITALANDVARIABLECAPITAL/242CHAPTER9:THERATEOFSURPLUS-VALUE/259CHAPTER10:THEWORKINGDAY/285CHAPTER11:RATEANDMASSOFSURPLUS-VALUE/388PART4:PRODUCTIONOFRELATIVESURPLUS-VALUECHAPTER12:THECONCEPTOFRELATIVESURPLUS-VALUE/403CHAPTER13:CO-OPERATION/417CONTENTS3CHAPTER14:DIVISIONOFLABOURANDMANUFACTURE/438CHAPTER15:MACHINERYANDMODERNINDUSTRY/487PART5:PRODUCTIONOFABSOLUTEANDRELATIVESURPLUS-VALUECHAPTER16:ABSOLUTEANDRELATIVESURPLUS-VALUE/685CHAPTER17:CHANGESOFMAGNITUDEINTHEPRICEOFLABOUR-POWERANDINSURPLUS-VALUE/700CHAPTER18:VARIOUSFORMULAFORTHERATEOFSURPLUS-VALUE/717PART6:WAGESCHAPTER19:THETRANSFORMATIONOFTHEVALUE(ANDRESPECTIVEPRICE)OFLABOUR-POWERINTOWAGES/7254CAPITALCHAPTER20:TIME-WAGES/736CHAPTER21:PIECEWAGES/747CHAPTER22:NATIONALDIFFERENCESOFWAGES/759PART7:THEACCUMULATIONOFCAPITALCHAPTER23:SIMPLEREPRODUCTION/771CHAPTER24:CONVERSIONOFSURPLUS-VALUEINTOCAPITAL/790CHAPTER25:THEGENERALLAWOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION/839PART8:PRIMITIVEACCUMULATIONCHAPTER26:THESECRETOFPRIMITIVEACCUMULATION/983CHAPTER27:EXPROPRIATIONOFTHEAGRICULTURALPOPULATIONFROMTHELAND/988CHAPTER28:BLOODYLEGISLATIONAGAINSTCONTENTS5THEEXPROPRIATED,FROMTHEENDOFTHE15THCENTURY.FORCINGDOWNOFWAGESBYACTSOFPARLIAMENT/1013CHAPTER29:GENESISOFTHECAPITALISTFARMER/1025CHAPTER30:REACTIONOFTHEAGRICULTURALREVOLUTIONONINDUSTRY.CREATIONOFTHEHOME-MARKETFORINDUSTRIALCAPITAL/1029CHAPTER31:THEGENESISOFTHEINDUSTRIALCAPITALIST/1036CHAPTER32:HISTORICALTENDENCYOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION/1052CHAPTER33:THEMODERNTHEORYOFCOLONISATION/1057PREFACETOTHEFIRSTGERMANEDITION(MARX,1867)hework,thefirstvolumeofwhichInowTsubmittothepublic,formsthecontinuationofmyZurKritikderPolitischenOekonomie(AContributiontotheCriticismofPoliticalEconomy)publishedin1859.Thelongpausebetweenthefirstpartandthecontinuationisduetoanillnessofmanyyears'durationthatagainandagaininterruptedmywork.

Thesubstanceofthatearlierworkissummarisedinthefirstthreechaptersofthisvolume.Thisisdonenotmerelyforthesakeofconnexionandcompleteness.

Thepresentationofthesubjectmatterisimproved.Asfarascircumstancesinanywaypermit,manypointsonlyhintedatintheearlierbookarehereworkedoutmorefully,whilst,conversely,pointsworkedoutfullythereareonlytoucheduponinthisvolume.

Thesectionsonthehistoryofthetheoriesofvalueandofmoneyarenow,ofcourse,leftoutaltogether.

Thereaderoftheearlierworkwillfind,however,inthenotestothefirstchapteradditionalsourcesofreferencerelativetothehistoryofthosetheories.

Everybeginningisdifficult,holdsinallsciences.Tounderstandthefirstchapter,especiallythesectionthatcontainstheanalysisofcommodities,will,therefore,presentthegreatestdifficulty.Thatwhichconcernsmoreespeciallytheanalysisofthesubstanceofvalueandthemagnitudeofvalue,Ihave,asmuchasit2CAPITALwaspossible,popularised.1Thevalue-form,whosefullydevelopedshapeisthemoney-form,isveryelementaryandsimple.Nevertheless,thehumanmindhasformorethan2,000yearssoughtinvaintogettothebottomofitall,whilstontheotherhand,tothesuccessfulanalysisofmuchmorecompositeandcomplexforms,therehasbeenatleastanapproximation.Why?Becausethebody,asanorganicwhole,ismoreeasyofstudythanarethecellsofthatbody.Intheanalysisofeconomicforms,moreover,neithermicroscopesnorchemicalreagentsareofuse.

Theforceofabstractionmustreplaceboth.Butinbourgeoissociety,thecommodity-formoftheproductoflabour–orvalue-formofthecommodity–istheeconomiccell-form.Tothesuperficialobserver,theanalysisoftheseformsseemstoturnuponminutiae.

Itdoesinfactdealwithminutiae,buttheyareofthesameorderasthosedealtwithinmicroscopicanatomy.

Withtheexceptionofthesectiononvalue-form,therefore,thisvolumecannotstandaccusedonthescoreofdifficulty.Ipresuppose,ofcourse,areaderwhoiswillingtolearnsomethingnewandthereforetothinkforhimself.

Thephysicisteitherobservesphysicalphenomenawheretheyoccurintheirmosttypicalformandmostfreefromdisturbinginfluence,or,whereverpossible,hemakesexperimentsunderconditionsthatassuretheoccurrenceofthephenomenoninitsnormality.

InthisworkIhavetoexaminethecapitalistmodeofproduction,andtheconditionsofproductionandexchangecorrespondingtothatmode.Uptothepresenttime,theirclassicgroundisEngland.

ThatisthereasonwhyEnglandisusedasthechiefillustrationinthedevelopmentofmytheoreticalideas.

If,however,theGermanreadershrugshisshouldersattheconditionoftheEnglishindustrialandagriculturallabourers,orinoptimistfashioncomfortshimselfwithPrefacetotheFirstGermanEdition(Marx,1867)3thethoughtthatinGermanythingsarenotnearlysobad;Imustplainlytellhim,"Detefabulanarratur!"[Itisofyouthatthestoryistold.–Horace]Intrinsically,itisnotaquestionofthehigherorlowerdegreeofdevelopmentofthesocialantagonismsthatresultfromthenaturallawsofcapitalistproduction.Itisaquestionoftheselawsthemselves,ofthesetendenciesworkingwithironnecessitytowardsinevitableresults.Thecountrythatismoredevelopedindustriallyonlyshows,tothelessdeveloped,theimageofitsownfuture.

Butapartfromthis.WherecapitalistproductionisfullynaturalisedamongtheGermans(forinstance,inthefactoriesproper)theconditionofthingsismuchworsethaninEngland,becausethecounterpoiseoftheFactoryActsiswanting.Inallotherspheres,we,likealltherestofContinentalWesternEurope,suffernotonlyfromthedevelopmentofcapitalistproduction,butalsofromtheincompletenessofthatdevelopment.

Alongsidethemodernevils,awholeseriesofinheritedevilsoppressus,arisingfromthepassivesurvivalofantiquatedmodesofproduction,withtheirinevitabletrainofsocialandpoliticalanachronisms.Wesuffernotonlyfromtheliving,butfromthedead.Lemortsaisitlevif![Thedeadholdsthelivinginhisgrasp.–formulaofFrenchcommonlaw]ThesocialstatisticsofGermanyandtherestofContinentalWesternEuropeare,incomparisonwiththoseofEngland,wretchedlycompiled.ButtheyraisetheveiljustenoughtoletuscatchaglimpseoftheMedusaheadbehindit.Weshouldbeappalledatthestateofthingsathome,if,asinEngland,ourgovernmentsandparliamentsappointedperiodicallycommissionsofinquiryintoeconomicconditions;ifthesecommissionswerearmedwiththesameplenarypowerstogetatthetruth;ifitwaspossibletofindforthispurposemenascompetent,asfreefrompartisanshipandrespectofpersonsasarethe4CAPITALEnglishfactory-inspectors,hermedicalreportersonpublichealth,hercommissionersofinquiryintotheexploitationofwomenandchildren,intohousingandfood.Perseusworeamagiccapdownoverhiseyesandearsasamake-believethattherearenomonsters.

Letusnotdeceiveourselvesonthis.Asinthe18thcentury,theAmericanwarofindependencesoundedthetocsinfortheEuropeanmiddleclass,sothatinthe19thcentury,theAmericanCivilWarsoundeditfortheEuropeanworkingclass.InEnglandtheprocessofsocialdisintegrationispalpable.Whenithasreachedacertainpoint,itmustreactontheContinent.Thereitwilltakeaformmorebrutalormorehumane,accordingtothedegreeofdevelopmentoftheworkingclassitself.Apartfromhighermotives,therefore,theirownmostimportantinterestsdictatetotheclassesthatareforthenoncetherulingones,theremovalofalllegallyremovablehindrancestothefreedevelopmentoftheworkingclass.Forthisreason,aswellasothers,Ihavegivensolargeaspaceinthisvolumetothehistory,thedetails,andtheresultsofEnglishfactorylegislation.Onenationcanandshouldlearnfromothers.Andevenwhenasocietyhasgotupontherighttrackforthediscoveryofthenaturallawsofitsmovement–anditistheultimateaimofthiswork,tolaybaretheeconomiclawofmotionofmodernsociety–itcanneitherclearbyboldleaps,norremovebylegalenactments,theobstaclesofferedbythesuccessivephasesofitsnormaldevelopment.Butitcanshortenandlessenthebirth-pangs.

Topreventpossiblemisunderstanding,aword.

Ipaintthecapitalistandthelandlordinnosensecouleurderose[i.e.,seenthroughrose-tintedglasses].

Buthereindividualsaredealtwithonlyinsofarastheyarethepersonificationsofeconomiccategories,embodimentsofparticularclass-relationsandclass-interests.Mystandpoint,fromwhichtheevolutionoftheeconomicformationofsocietyisviewedasPrefacetotheFirstGermanEdition(Marx,1867)5aprocessofnaturalhistory,canlessthananyothermaketheindividualresponsibleforrelationswhosecreaturehesociallyremains,howevermuchhemaysubjectivelyraisehimselfabovethem.

InthedomainofPoliticalEconomy,freescientificinquirymeetsnotmerelythesameenemiesasinallotherdomains.Thepeculiarnatureofthematerialsitdealswith,summonsasfoesintothefieldofbattlethemostviolent,meanandmalignantpassionsofthehumanbreast,theFuriesofprivateinterest.TheEnglishEstablishedChurch,e.g.,willmorereadilypardonanattackon38ofits39articlesthanon1/39ofitsincome.Now-a-daysatheismisculpalevis[arelativelyslightsin,c.f.mortalsin],ascomparedwithcriticismofexistingpropertyrelations.Nevertheless,thereisanunmistakableadvance.Irefer,e.g.,totheBluebookpublishedwithinthelastfewweeks:"CorrespondencewithHerMajesty'sMissionsAbroad,regardingIndustrialQuestionsandTrades'Unions."TherepresentativesoftheEnglishCrowninforeigncountriestheredeclareinsomanywordsthatinGermany,inFrance,tobebrief,inallthecivilisedstatesoftheEuropeanContinent,radicalchangeintheexistingrelationsbetweencapitalandlabourisasevidentandinevitableasinEngland.Atthesametime,ontheothersideoftheAtlanticOcean,Mr.Wade,vice-presidentoftheUnitedStates,declaredinpublicmeetingsthat,aftertheabolitionofslavery,aradicalchangeoftherelationsofcapitalandofpropertyinlandisnextupontheorderoftheday.Thesearesignsofthetimes,nottobehiddenbypurplemantlesorblackcassocks.Theydonotsignifythattomorrowamiraclewillhappen.Theyshowthat,withintherulingclassesthemselves,aforebodingisdawning,thatthepresentsocietyisnosolidcrystal,butanorganismcapableofchange,andisconstantlychanging.

Thesecondvolumeofthisbookwilltreatoftheprocessofthecirculationofcapital(BookII.),andof6CAPITALthevariedformsassumedbycapitalinthecourseofitsdevelopment(BookIII.),thethirdandlastvolume(BookIV.),thehistoryofthetheory.

EveryopinionbasedonscientificcriticismIwelcome.Astoprejudicesofso-calledpublicopinion,towhichIhavenevermadeconcessions,nowasaforetimethemaximofthegreatFlorentineismine:"Seguiiltuocorso,elasciadirlegenti."[Followyourowncourse,andletpeopletalk–paraphrasedfromDante]KarlMarxLondonJuly25,1867NOTES:1Thisisthemorenecessary,aseventhesectionofFerdinandLassalle’sworkagainstSchulze-Delitzsch,inwhichheprofessestogive“theintellectualquintessence”ofmyexplanationsonthesesubjects,containsimportantmistakes.

IfFerdinandLassallehasborrowedalmostliterallyfrommywritings,andwithoutanyacknowledgement,allthegeneraltheoreticalpropositionsinhiseconomicworks,e.g.,thoseonthehistoricalcharacterofcapital,ontheconnexionbetweentheconditionsofproductionandthemodeofproduction,&c.,&c.,eventotheterminologycreatedbyme,thismayperhapsbeduetopurposesofpropaganda.Iamhere,ofcourse,notspeakingofhisdetailedworkingoutandapplicationofthesepropositions,withwhichIhavenothingtodo.

PREFACETOTHEFRENCHEDITION(MARX,1872)othecitizenMauriceLachatreTDearCitizen,Iapplaudyourideaofpublishingthetranslationof"DasKapital"asaserial.Inthisformthebookwillbemoreaccessibletotheworkingclass,aconsiderationwhichtomeoutweighseverythingelse.

Thatisthegoodsideofyoursuggestion,buthereisthereverseofthemedal:themethodofanalysiswhichIhaveemployed,andwhichhadnotpreviouslybeenappliedtoeconomicsubjects,makesthereadingofthefirstchaptersratherarduous,anditistobefearedthattheFrenchpublic,alwaysimpatienttocometoaconclusion,eagertoknowtheconnexionbetweengeneralprinciplesandtheimmediatequestionsthathavearousedtheirpassions,maybedisheartenedbecausetheywillbeunabletomoveonatonce.

ThatisadisadvantageIampowerlesstoovercome,unlessitbebyforewarningandforearmingthosereaderswhozealouslyseekthetruth.Thereisnoroyalroadtoscience,andonlythosewhodonotdreadthefatiguingclimbofitssteeppathshaveachanceofgainingitsluminoussummits.

Believeme,dearcitizen,8CAPITALYourdevoted,KarlMarxLondonMarch18,1872AFTERWORDTOTHESECONDGERMANEDITION(MARX,1873)muststartbyinformingthereadersoftheIfirsteditionaboutthealterationsmadeinthesecondedition.Oneisstruckatoncebytheclearerarrangementofthebook.Additionalnotesareeverywheremarkedasnotestothesecondedition.Thefollowingarethemostimportantpointswithregardtothetextitself:InChapterI,Section1,thederivationofvaluefromananalysisoftheequationsbywhicheveryexchange-valueisexpressedhasbeencarriedoutwithgreaterscientificstrictness;likewisetheconnexionbetweenthesubstanceofvalueandthedeterminationofthemagnitudeofvaluebysociallynecessarylabour-time,whichwasonlyalludedtointhefirstedition,isnowexpresslyemphasised.ChapterI,Section3(theFormofValue),hasbeencompletelyrevised,ataskwhichwasmadenecessarybythedoubleexpositioninthefirstedition,ifnothingelse.–Letmeremark,inpassing,thatthatdoubleexpositionhadbeenoccasionedbymyfriend,Dr.LKugelmanninHanover.Iwasvisitinghiminthespringof1867whenthefirstproof-sheetsarrivedfromHamburg,andheconvincedmethatmostreadersneededasupplementary,moredidacticexplanationoftheformofvalue.–Thelastsectionofthefirstchapter,"TheFetishismofCommodities,etc.,"haslargelybeenaltered.ChapterIII,SectionI(TheMeasureofValue),10CAPITALhasbeencarefullyrevised,becauseinthefirsteditionthissectionhadbeentreatednegligently,thereaderhavingbeenreferredtotheexplanationalreadygivenin"ZurKritikderPolitischenOekonomie,"Berlin1859.ChapterVII,particularlyPart2[Eng.ed.,ChapterIX,Section2],hasbeenre-writtentoagreatextent.

Itwouldbeawasteoftimetogointoallthepartialtextualchanges,whichwereoftenpurelystylistic.

Theyoccurthroughoutthebook.NeverthelessIfindnow,onrevisingtheFrenchtranslationappearinginParis,thatseveralpartsoftheGermanoriginalstandinneedofratherthoroughremoulding,otherpartsrequireratherheavystylisticediting,andstillotherspainstakingeliminationofoccasionalslips.Buttherewasnotimeforthat.ForIhadbeeninformedonlyintheautumnof1871,wheninthemidstofotherurgentwork,thatthebookwassoldoutandthattheprintingofthesecondeditionwastobegininJanuaryof1872.

Theappreciationwhich"DasKapital"rapidlygainedinwidecirclesoftheGermanworkingclassisthebestrewardofmylabours.HerrMayer,aViennamanufacturer,whoineconomicmattersrepresentsthebourgeoispointofview,inapamphletpublishedduringtheFranco-GermanWaraptlyexpoundedtheideathatthegreatcapacityfortheory,whichusedtobeconsideredahereditaryGermanpossession,hadalmostcompletelydisappearedamongsttheso-callededucatedclassesinGermany,butthatamongstitsworkingclass,onthecontrary,thatcapacitywascelebratingitsrevival.

TothepresentmomentPoliticalEconomy,inGermany,isaforeignscience.GustavvonGulichinhis"HistoricaldescriptionofCommerce,Industry,"&c.,1especiallyinthetwofirstvolumespublishedin1830,hasexaminedatlengththehistoricalcircumstancesthatprevented,inGermany,thedevelopmentofthecapitalistmodeofproduction,AfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)11andconsequentlythedevelopment,inthatcountry,ofmodernbourgeoissociety.ThusthesoilwhencePoliticalEconomyspringswaswanting.This"science"hadtobeimportedfromEnglandandFranceasaready-madearticle;itsGermanprofessorsremainedschoolboys.Thetheoreticalexpressionofaforeignrealitywasturned,intheirhands,intoacollectionofdogmas,interpretedbythemintermsofthepettytradingworldaroundthem,andthereforemisinterpreted.Thefeelingofscientificimpotence,afeelingnotwhollytoberepressed,andtheuneasyconsciousnessofhavingtotouchasubjectinrealityforeigntothem,wasbutimperfectlyconcealed,eitherunderaparadeofliteraryandhistoricalerudition,orbyanadmixtureofextraneousmaterial,borrowedfromtheso-called"Kameral"sciences,amedleyofsmatterings,throughwhosepurgatorythehopefulcandidatefortheGermanbureaucracyhastopass.

Since1848capitalistproductionhasdevelopedrapidlyinGermany,andatthepresenttimeitisinthefullbloomofspeculationandswindling.

Butfateisstillunpropitioustoourprofessionaleconomists.AtthetimewhentheywereabletodealwithPoliticalEconomyinastraightforwardfashion,moderneconomicconditionsdidnotactuallyexistinGermany.Andassoonastheseconditionsdidcomeintoexistence,theydidsoundercircumstancesthatnolongerallowedoftheirbeingreallyandimpartiallyinvestigatedwithintheboundsofthebourgeoishorizon.InsofarasPoliticalEconomyremainswithinthathorizon,insofar,i.e.,asthecapitalistregimeislookeduponastheabsolutelyfinalformofsocialproduction,insteadofasapassinghistoricalphaseofitsevolution,PoliticalEconomycanremainascienceonlysolongastheclassstruggleislatentormanifestsitselfonlyinisolatedandsporadicphenomena.

LetustakeEngland.ItsPoliticalEconomybelongstotheperiodinwhichtheclassstrugglewasasyet12CAPITALundeveloped.Itslastgreatrepresentative,Ricardo,intheend,consciouslymakestheantagonismofclassinterests,ofwagesandprofits,ofprofitsandrent,thestartingpointofhisinvestigations,naivelytakingthisantagonismforasociallawofNature.Butbythisstartthescienceofbourgeoiseconomyhadreachedthelimitsbeyondwhichitcouldnotpass.AlreadyinthelifetimeofRicardo,andinoppositiontohim,itwasmetbycriticism,inthepersonofSismondi.2Thesucceedingperiod,from1820to1830,wasnotableinEnglandforscientificactivityinthedomainofPoliticalEconomy.ItwasthetimeaswellofthevulgarisingandextendingofRicardo'stheory,asofthecontestofthattheorywiththeoldschool.Splendidtournamentswereheld.Whatwasdonethen,islittleknowntotheContinentgenerally,becausethepolemicisforthemostpartscatteredthrougharticlesinreviews,occasionalliteratureandpamphlets.Theunprejudicedcharacterofthispolemic–althoughthetheoryofRicardoalreadyserves,inexceptionalcases,asaweaponofattackuponbourgeoiseconomy–isexplainedbythecircumstancesofthetime.Ontheonehand,modernindustryitselfwasonlyjustemergingfromtheageofchildhood,asisshownbythefactthatwiththecrisisof1825itforthefirsttimeopenstheperiodiccycleofitsmodernlife.Ontheotherhand,theclassstrugglebetweencapitalandlabourisforcedintothebackground,politicallybythediscordbetweenthegovernmentsandthefeudalaristocracygatheredaroundtheHolyAllianceontheonehand,andthepopularmasses,ledbythebourgeoisie,ontheother;economicallybythequarrelbetweenindustrialcapitalandaristocraticlandedproperty-aquarrelthatinFrancewasconcealedbytheoppositionbetweensmallandlargelandedproperty,andthatinEnglandbrokeoutopenlyaftertheCornLaws.TheliteratureofPoliticalEconomyinEnglandatthistimecallstomindthestormyforwardmovementinFranceafterDr.

AfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)13Quesnay'sdeath,butonlyasaSaintMartin'ssummerremindsusofspring.Withtheyear1830camethedecisivecrisis.

InFranceandinEnglandthebourgeoisiehadconqueredpoliticalpower.Thenceforth,theclassstruggle,practicallyaswellastheoretically,tookonmoreandmoreoutspokenandthreateningforms.Itsoundedtheknellofscientificbourgeoiseconomy.

Itwasthenceforthnolongeraquestion,whetherthistheoremorthatwastrue,butwhetheritwasusefultocapitalorharmful,expedientorinexpedient,politicallydangerousornot.Inplaceofdisinterestedinquirers,therewerehiredprizefighters;inplaceofgenuinescientificresearch,thebadconscienceandtheevilintentofapologetic.Still,eventheobtrusivepamphletswithwhichtheAnti-CornLawLeague,ledbythemanufacturersCobdenandBright,delugedtheworld,haveahistoricinterest,ifnoscientificone,onaccountoftheirpolemicagainstthelandedaristocracy.

ButsincethentheFreeTradelegislation,inauguratedbySirRobertPeel,hasdeprivedvulgareconomyofthisitslaststing.

TheContinentalrevolutionof1848-9alsohaditsreactioninEngland.MenwhostillclaimedsomescientificstandingandaspiredtobesomethingmorethanmeresophistsandsycophantsoftherulingclassestriedtoharmonisethePoliticalEconomyofcapitalwiththeclaims,nolongertobeignored,oftheproletariat.HenceashallowsyncretismofwhichJohnStuartMillisthebestrepresentative.Itisadeclarationofbankruptcybybourgeoiseconomy,aneventonwhichthegreatRussianscholarandcritic,N.

Tschernyschewsky,hasthrownthelightofamastermindinhis"OutlinesofPoliticalEconomyaccordingtoMill."InGermany,therefore,thecapitalistmodeofproductioncametoahead,afteritsantagonisticcharacterhadalready,inFranceandEngland,shown14CAPITALitselfinafiercestrifeofclasses.Andmeanwhile,moreover,theGermanproletariathadattainedamuchmoreclearclass-consciousnessthantheGermanbourgeoisie.Thus,attheverymomentwhenabourgeoisscienceofPoliticalEconomyseemedatlastpossibleinGermany,ithadinrealityagainbecomeimpossible.

Underthesecircumstancesitsprofessorsfellintotwogroups.Theoneset,prudent,practicalbusinessfolk,flockedtothebannerofBastiat,themostsuperficialandthereforethemostadequaterepresentativeoftheapologeticofvulgareconomy;theother,proudoftheprofessorialdignityoftheirscience,followedJohnStuartMillinhisattempttoreconcileirreconcilables.Justasintheclassicaltimeofbourgeoiseconomy,soalsointhetimeofitsdecline,theGermansremainedmereschoolboys,imitatorsandfollowers,pettyretailersandhawkersintheserviceofthegreatforeignwholesaleconcern.

ThepeculiarhistoricaldevelopmentofGermansocietythereforeforbids,inthatcountry,alloriginalworkinbourgeoiseconomy;butnotthecriticismofthateconomy.Sofarassuchcriticismrepresentsaclass,itcanonlyrepresenttheclasswhosevocationinhistoryistheoverthrowofthecapitalistmodeofproductionandthefinalabolitionofallclasses–theproletariat.

ThelearnedandunlearnedspokesmenoftheGermanbourgeoisietriedatfirsttokill"DasKapital"bysilence,astheyhadmanagedtodowithmyearlierwritings.Assoonastheyfoundthatthesetacticsnolongerfittedinwiththeconditionsofthetime,theywrote,underpretenceofcriticisingmybook,prescriptions"forthetranquillisationofthebourgeoismind."Buttheyfoundintheworkers'press–see,e.g.,JosephDietzgen'sarticlesinthe–antagonistsstrongerthanthemselves,towhom(downtothisveryday)theyoweareply.3AfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)15AnexcellentRussiantranslationof"DasKapital"appearedinthespringof1872.Theeditionof3,000copiesisalreadynearlyexhausted.Asearlyas1871,N.Sieber,ProfessorofPoliticalEconomyintheUniversityofKiev,inhiswork"DavidRicardo'sTheoryofValueandofCapital,"referredtomytheoryofvalue,ofmoneyandofcapital,asinitsfundamentalsanecessarysequeltotheteachingofSmithandRicardo.ThatwhichastonishestheWesternEuropeaninthereadingofthisexcellentwork,istheauthor'sconsistentandfirmgraspofthepurelytheoreticalposition.

Thatthemethodemployedin"DasKapital"hasbeenlittleunderstood,isshownbythevariousconceptions,contradictoryonetoanother,thathavebeenformedofit.

ThustheParisRevuePositivistereproachesmeinthat,ontheonehand,Itreateconomicsmetaphysically,andontheotherhand–imagine!–confinemyselftothemerecriticalanalysisofactualfacts,insteadofwritingreceipts4(Comtistones?)forthecook-shopsofthefuture.Inanswertothereproachinremetaphysics,ProfessorSieberhasit:"Insofarasitdealswithactualtheory,themethodofMarxisthedeductivemethodofthewholeEnglishschool,aschoolwhosefailingsandvirtuesarecommontothebesttheoreticeconomists."M.Block–"LesThéoriciensduSocialismeenAllemagne.ExtraitduJournaldesEconomistes,JuilletetAo?t1872"–makesthediscoverythatmymethodisanalyticandsays:"ParcetouvrageM.

Marxseclasseparmilesespritsanalytiqueslespluseminents."Germanreviews,ofcourse,shriekoutat"Hegeliansophistics."TheEuropeanMessengerofSt.

Petersburginanarticledealingexclusivelywiththemethodof"DasKapital"(Maynumber,1872,pp.427-436),findsmymethodofinquiryseverelyrealistic,but16CAPITALmymethodofpresentation,unfortunately,German-dialectical.Itsays:"Atfirstsight,ifthejudgmentisbasedontheexternalformofthepresentationofthesubject,Marxisthemostidealofidealphilosophers,alwaysintheGerman,i.e.,thebadsenseoftheword.Butinpointoffactheisinfinitelymorerealisticthanallhisforerunnersintheworkofeconomiccriticism.Hecaninnosensebecalledanidealist."Icannotanswerthewriterbetterthanbyaidofafewextractsfromhisowncriticism,whichmayinterestsomeofmyreaderstowhomtheRussianoriginalisinaccessible.

Afteraquotationfromtheprefacetomy"CriticismofPoliticalEconomy,"Berlin,1859,pp.IV-VII,whereIdiscussthematerialisticbasisofmymethod,thewritergoeson:"TheonethingwhichisofmomenttoMarx,istofindthelawofthephenomenawithwhoseinvestigationheisconcerned;andnotonlyisthatlawofmomenttohim,whichgovernsthesephenomena,insofarastheyhaveadefiniteformandmutualconnexionwithinagivenhistoricalperiod.Ofstillgreatermomenttohimisthelawoftheirvariation,oftheirdevelopment,i.e.,oftheirtransitionfromoneformintoanother,fromoneseriesofconnexionsintoadifferentone.Thislawoncediscovered,heinvestigatesindetailtheeffectsinwhichitmanifestsitselfinsociallife.

Consequently,Marxonlytroubleshimselfaboutonething:toshow,byrigidscientificinvestigation,thenecessityofsuccessivedeterminateordersofsocialconditions,andtoestablish,asimpartiallyaspossible,thefactsthatservehimforfundamentalstarting-points.Forthisitisquiteenough,ifheproves,atthesametime,boththenecessityofthepresentorderofthings,andtheAfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)17necessityofanotherorderintowhichthefirstmustinevitablypassover;andthisallthesame,whethermenbelieveordonotbelieveit,whethertheyareconsciousorunconsciousofit.Marxtreatsthesocialmovementasaprocessofnaturalhistory,governedbylawsnotonlyindependentofhumanwill,consciousnessandintelligence,butrather,onthecontrary,determiningthatwill,consciousnessandintelligence....Ifinthehistoryofcivilisationtheconsciouselementplaysapartsosubordinate,thenitisself-evidentthatacriticalinquirywhosesubject-matteriscivilisation,can,lessthananythingelse,haveforitsbasisanyformof,oranyresultof,consciousness.Thatistosay,thatnottheidea,butthematerialphenomenonalonecanserveasitsstarting-point.Suchaninquirywillconfineitselftotheconfrontationandthecomparisonofafact,notwithideas,butwithanotherfact.Forthisinquiry,theonethingofmomentis,thatbothfactsbeinvestigatedasaccuratelyaspossible,andthattheyactuallyform,eachwithrespecttotheother,differentmomentaofanevolution;butmostimportantofallistherigidanalysisoftheseriesofsuccessions,ofthesequencesandconcatenationsinwhichthedifferentstagesofsuchanevolutionpresentthemselves.Butitwillbesaid,thegenerallawsofeconomiclifeareoneandthesame,nomatterwhethertheyareappliedtothepresentorthepast.ThisMarxdirectlydenies.Accordingtohim,suchabstractlawsdonotexist.Onthecontrary,inhisopinioneveryhistoricalperiodhaslawsofitsown....Assoonassocietyhasoutlivedagivenperiodofdevelopment,andispassingoverfromonegivenstagetoanother,itbeginstobesubjectalsotootherlaws.Inaword,economiclifeoffersusaphenomenonanalogoustothehistoryofevolutioninotherbranchesofbiology.Theoldeconomistsmisunderstoodthenatureofeconomic18CAPITALlawswhentheylikenedthemtothelawsofphysicsandchemistry.Amorethoroughanalysisofphenomenashowsthatsocialorganismsdifferamongthemselvesasfundamentallyasplantsoranimals.Nay,oneandthesamephenomenonfallsunderquitedifferentlawsinconsequenceofthedifferentstructureofthoseorganismsasawhole,ofthevariationsoftheirindividualorgans,ofthedifferentconditionsinwhichthoseorgansfunction,&c.Marx,e.g.,deniesthatthelawofpopulationisthesameatalltimesandinallplaces.Heasserts,onthecontrary,thateverystageofdevelopmenthasitsownlawofpopulation.

...Withthevaryingdegreeofdevelopmentofproductivepower,socialconditionsandthelawsgoverningthemvarytoo.WhilstMarxsetshimselfthetaskoffollowingandexplainingfromthispointofviewtheeconomicsystemestablishedbytheswayofcapital,heisonlyformulating,inastrictlyscientificmanner,theaimthateveryaccurateinvestigationintoeconomiclifemusthave.Thescientificvalueofsuchaninquiryliesinthedisclosingofthespeciallawsthatregulatetheorigin,existence,development,deathofagivensocialorganismanditsreplacementbyanotherandhigherone.Anditisthisvaluethat,inpointoffact,Marx'sbookhas."Whilstthewriterpictureswhathetakestobeactuallymymethod,inthisstrikingand[asfarasconcernsmyownapplicationofit]generousway,whatelseishepicturingbutthedialecticmethod?

Ofcoursethemethodofpresentationmustdifferinformfromthatofinquiry.Thelatterhastoappropriatethematerialindetail,toanalyseitsdifferentformsofdevelopment,totraceouttheirinnerconnexion.Onlyafterthisworkisdone,cantheactualmovementbeadequatelydescribed.Ifthisisdonesuccessfully,ifthelifeofthesubject-matterisideallyreflectedasinAfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)19amirror,thenitmayappearasifwehadbeforeusamereaprioriconstruction.

MydialecticmethodisnotonlydifferentfromtheHegelian,butisitsdirectopposite.ToHegel,thelifeprocessofthehumanbrain,i.e.,theprocessofthinking,which,underthenameof"theIdea,"heeventransformsintoanindependentsubject,isthedemiurgosoftherealworld,andtherealworldisonlytheexternal,phenomenalformof"theIdea."Withme,onthecontrary,theidealisnothingelsethanthematerialworldreflectedbythehumanmind,andtranslatedintoformsofthought.

ThemystifyingsideofHegeliandialecticIcriticisednearlythirtyyearsago,atatimewhenitwasstillthefashion.ButjustasIwasworkingatthefirstvolumeof"DasKapital,"itwasthegoodpleasureofthepeevish,arrogant,mediocreEpigonoi[Epigones–Büchner,Dühringandothers]whonowtalklargeinculturedGermany,totreatHegelinsamewayasthebraveMosesMendelssohninLessing'stimetreatedSpinoza,i.e.,asa"deaddog."Ithereforeopenlyavowedmyselfthepupilofthatmightythinker,andevenhereandthere,inthechapteronthetheoryofvalue,coquettedwiththemodesofexpressionpeculiartohim.ThemystificationwhichdialecticsuffersinHegel'shands,bynomeanspreventshimfrombeingthefirsttopresentitsgeneralformofworkinginacomprehensiveandconsciousmanner.Withhimitisstandingonitshead.Itmustbeturnedrightsideupagain,ifyouwoulddiscovertherationalkernelwithinthemysticalshell.

Initsmystifiedform,dialecticbecamethefashioninGermany,becauseitseemedtotransfigureandtoglorifytheexistingstateofthings.Initsrationalformitisascandalandabominationtobourgeoisdomanditsdoctrinaireprofessors,becauseitincludesinitscomprehensionandaffirmativerecognitionoftheexistingstateofthings,atthesametime20CAPITALalso,therecognitionofthenegationofthatstate,ofitsinevitablebreakingup;becauseitregardseveryhistoricallydevelopedsocialformasinfluidmovement,andthereforetakesintoaccountitstransientnaturenotlessthanitsmomentaryexistence;becauseitletsnothingimposeuponit,andisinitsessencecriticalandrevolutionary.

Thecontradictionsinherentinthemovementofcapitalistsocietyimpressthemselvesuponthepracticalbourgeoismoststrikinglyinthechangesoftheperiodiccycle,throughwhichmodernindustryruns,andwhosecrowningpointistheuniversalcrisis.

Thatcrisisisonceagainapproaching,althoughasyetbutinitspreliminarystage;andbytheuniversalityofitstheatreandtheintensityofitsactionitwilldrumdialecticsevenintotheheadsofthemushroom-upstartsofthenew,holyPrusso-Germanempire.

KarlMarxLondonJanuary24,1873NOTES:1GeschichtlicheDarstellungdesHandels,derGewerbeunddesAckerbaus,&c..vonGustavvonGülich.5vols.,Jena.

1830-45.

2Seemywork"ZurKritik,&c.,"p.39.

3Themealy-mouthedbabblersofGermanvulgareconomyfellfoulofthestyleofmybook.Noonecanfeeltheliteraryshortcomingsin"DasKapital"morestronglythanImyself.

YetIwillforthebenefitandtheenjoymentofthesegentlemenandtheirpublicquoteinthisconnexiononeEnglishandoneRussiannotice.TheSaturdayReview,alwayshostiletomyviews,saidinitsnoticeofthefirstedition:"Thepresentationofthesubjectinveststhedriesteconomicquestionswithacertainpeculiarcharm."The"St.PetersburgJournal"(Sankt-PeterburgskieViedomosti),initsissueofApril8(20),1872,AfterwordtotheSecondGermanEdition(Marx,1873)21says:"Thepresentationofthesubject,withtheexceptionofoneortwoexceptionallyspecialparts,isdistinguishedbyitscomprehensibilitybythegeneralreader,itsclearness,and,inspiteofthescientificintricacyofthesubject,byanunusualliveliness.Inthisrespecttheauthorinnowayresembles...

themajorityofGermanscholarswho...writetheirbooksinalanguagesodryandobscurethattheheadsofordinarymortalsarecrackedbyit."4Rezepte–translatedas"Receipt,"whichinthe19thCentury,meant"recipe"andBenFowkes,forexampletranslatesthisas"recipe."[MIAfootnote].

AFTERWORDTOTHEFRENCHEDITION(MARX,1875)r.J.RoysethimselfthetaskofproducingMaversionthatwouldbeasexactandevenliteralaspossible,andhasscrupulouslyfulfilledit.

Buthisveryscrupulosityhascompelledmetomodifyhistext,withaviewtorenderingitmoreintelligibletothereader.Thesealterations,introducedfromdaytoday,asthebookwaspublishedinparts,werenotmadewithequalcareandwereboundtoresultinalackofharmonyinstyle.

Havingonceundertakenthisworkofrevision,Iwasledtoapplyitalsotothebasicoriginaltext(thesecondGermanedition),tosimplifysomearguments,tocompleteothers,togiveadditionalhistoricalorstatisticalmaterial,toaddcriticalsuggestions,etc.

Hence,whatevertheliterarydefectsofthisFrencheditionmaybe,itpossessesascientificvalueindependentoftheoriginalandshouldbeconsultedevenbyreadersfamiliarwithGerman.

BelowIgivethepassagesintheAfterwordtothesecondGermaneditionwhichtreatofthedevelopmentofPoliticalEconomyinGermanyandthemethodemployedinthepresentwork.

KarlMarxLondonApril28,1875PREFACETOTHETHIRDGERMANEDITION(ENGELS,1883)arxwasnotdestinedtogetthis,thethird,Meditionreadyforpresshimself.Thepowerfulthinker,towhosegreatnessevenhisopponentsnowmakeobeisance,diedonMarch14,1883.

UponmewhoinMarxlostthebest,thetruestfriendIhad–andhadforfortyyears–thefriendtowhomIammoreindebtedthancanbeexpressedinwords–uponmenowdevolvedthedutyofattendingtothepublicationofthisthirdedition,aswellasofthesecondvolume,whichMarxhadleftbehindinmanuscript.ImustnowaccountheretothereaderforthewayinwhichIdischargedthefirstpartofmyduty.

ItwasMarx'soriginalintentiontore-writeagreatpartofthetextofVolumeI,toformulatemanytheoreticalpointsmoreexactly,insertnewonesandbringhistoricalandstatisticalmaterialsuptodate.

ButhisailingconditionandtheurgentneedtodothefinaleditingofVolumeIIinducedhimtogiveupthisscheme.Onlythemostnecessaryalterationsweretobemade,onlytheinsertionswhichtheFrenchedition("LeCapital."ParKarlMarx.Paris,Lachatre1873)alreadycontained,weretobeputin.

AmongthebooksleftbyMarxtherewasaGermancopywhichhehimselfhadcorrectedhereandthereandprovidedwithreferencestotheFrenchedition;alsoaFrenchcopyinwhichhehadindicatedtheexactpassagestobeused.Thesealterationsandadditions24CAPITALareconfined,withfewexceptions,tothelast[Engl.

ed.:secondlast]partofthebook:"TheAccumulationofCapital."Heretheprevioustextfollowedtheoriginaldraftmorecloselythanelsewhere,whiletheprecedingsectionshadbeengoneovermorethoroughly.Thestylewasthereforemorevivacious,moreofasinglecast,butalsomorecareless,studdedwithAnglicismsandinpartsunclear;thereweregapshereandthereinthepresentationofarguments,someimportantparticularsbeingmerelyalludedto.

Withregardtothestyle,Marxhadhimselfthoroughlyrevisedseveralsub-sectionsandtherebyhadindicatedtomehere,aswellasinnumerousoralsuggestions,thelengthtowhichIcouldgoineliminatingEnglishtechnicaltermsandotherAnglicisms.MarxwouldinanyeventhavegoneovertheadditionsandsupplementaltextsandhavereplacedthesmoothFrenchwithhisownterseGerman;Ihadtobesatisfied,whentransferringthem,withbringingthemintomaximumharmonywiththeoriginaltext.

Thusnotasinglewordwaschangedinthisthirdeditionwithoutmyfirmconvictionthattheauthorwouldhavealteredithimself.Itwouldneveroccurtometointroduceinto"DasKapital"thecurrentjargoninwhichGermaneconomistsarewonttoexpressthemselves–thatgibberishinwhich,forinstance,onewhoforcashhasothersgivehimtheirlabouriscalledalabour-giver(Arbeitgeber)andonewhoselabouristakenawayfromhimforwagesiscalledalabour-taker(Arbeitnehmer).InFrench,too,theword"travail"isusedinevery-daylifeinthesenseof"occupation."ButtheFrenchwouldrightlyconsideranyeconomistcrazyshouldhecallthecapitalistadonneurdetravail(alabour-giver)ortheworkerareceveurdetravail(alabour-taker).

NorhaveItakenthelibertytoconverttheEnglishcoinsandmoneys,measuresandweightsusedthroughoutthetexttotheirnew-Germanequivalents.

PrefacetotheThirdGermanEdition(Engels,1883)25WhenthefirsteditionappearedtherewereasmanykindsofmeasuresandweightsinGermanyastherearedaysintheyear.Besidesthereweretwokindsofmarks(theReichsmarkexistedatthetimeonlyintheimaginationofSoetbeer,whohadinventeditinthelatethirties),twokindsofguldenandatleastthreekindsoftaler,includingonecalledneuesZweidrittel.

Inthenaturalsciencesthemetricsystemprevailed,intheworldmarket–Englishmeasuresandweights.

UndersuchcircumstancesEnglishunitsofmeasurewerequitenaturalforabookwhichhadtotakeitsfactualproofsalmostexclusivelyfromBritishindustrialrelations.Thelast-namedreasonisdecisiveevento-day,especiallybecausethecorrespondingrelationsintheworldmarkethavehardlychangedandEnglishweightsandmeasuresalmostcompletelycontrolpreciselythekeyindustries,ironandcotton.

InconclusionafewwordsonMarx'sartofquotation,whichissolittleunderstood.Whentheyarepurestatementsoffactordescriptions,thequotations,fromtheEnglishBluebooks,forexample,serveofcourseassimpledocumentaryproof.Butthisisnotsowhenthetheoreticalviewsofothereconomistsarecited.Herethequotationisintendedmerelytostatewhere,whenandbywhomaneconomicideaconceivedinthecourseofdevelopmentwasfirstclearlyenunciated.Heretheonlyconsiderationisthattheeconomicconceptioninquestionmustbeofsomesignificancetothehistoryofscience,thatitisthemoreorlessadequatetheoreticalexpressionoftheeconomicsituationofitstime.Butwhetherthisconceptionstillpossessesanyabsoluteorrelativevalidityfromthestandpointoftheauthororwhetheritalreadyhasbecomewhollypasthistoryisquiteimmaterial.Hencethesequotationsareonlyarunningcommentarytothetext,acommentaryborrowedfromthehistoryofeconomicscience,andestablishthedatesandoriginatorsofcertainofthemoreimportant26CAPITALadvancesineconomictheory.Andthatwasaverynecessarythinginasciencewhosehistorianshavesofardistinguishedthemselvesonlybytendentiousignorancecharacteristicofcareerists.ItwillnowbeunderstandablewhyMarx,inconsonancewiththeAfterwordtothesecondedition,onlyinveryexceptionalcaseshadoccasiontoquoteGermaneconomists.

Thereishopethatthesecondvolumewillappearinthecourseof1884.

FrederickEngelsLondonNovember7,1883PREFACETOTHEENGLISHEDITION(ENGELS,1886)hepublicationofanEnglishversionof"DasTKapital"needsnoapology.Onthecontrary,anexplanationmightbeexpectedwhythisEnglishversionhasbeendelayeduntilnow,seeingthatforsomeyearspastthetheoriesadvocatedinthisbookhavebeenconstantlyreferredto,attackedanddefended,interpretedandmisinterpreted,intheperiodicalpressandthecurrentliteratureofbothEnglandandAmerica.

When,soonaftertheauthor'sdeathin1883,itbecameevidentthatanEnglisheditionoftheworkwasreallyrequired,Mr.SamuelMoore,formanyyearsafriendofMarxandofthepresentwriter,andthanwhom,perhaps,nooneismoreconversantwiththebookitself,consentedtoundertakethetranslationwhichtheliteraryexecutorsofMarxwereanxioustolaybeforethepublic.ItwasunderstoodthatIshouldcomparetheMS.withtheoriginalwork,andsuggestsuchalterationsasImightdeemadvisable.

When,byandby,itwasfoundthatMr.Moore'sprofessionaloccupationspreventedhimfromfinishingthetranslationasquicklyaswealldesired,wegladlyacceptedDr.Aveling'soffertoundertakeaportionofthework;atthesametimeMrs.Aveling,Marx'syoungestdaughter,offeredtocheckthequotationsandtorestoretheoriginaltextofthenumerouspassagestakenfromEnglishauthorsandBluebooksand28CAPITALtranslatedbyMarxintoGerman.Thishasbeendonethroughout,withbutafewunavoidableexceptions.

ThefollowingportionsofthebookhavebeentranslatedbyDr.Aveling:(I)ChaptersX.(TheWorkingDay),andXI.(RateandMassofSurplus-Value);(2)PartVI.(Wages,comprisingChaptersXIX.toXXII.);(3)fromChapterXXIV.,Section4(Circumstancesthat&c.)totheendofthebook,comprisingthelatterpartofChapterXXIV.,.ChapterXXV.,andthewholeofPartVIII.(ChaptersXXVI.

toXXXIII);(4)thetwoAuthor'sprefaces.AlltherestofthebookhasbeendonebyMr.Moore.While,thus,eachofthetranslatorsisresponsibleforhisshareoftheworkonly,Ibearajointresponsibilityforthewhole.

ThethirdGermanedition,whichhasbeenmadethebasisofourworkthroughout,waspreparedbyme,in1883,withtheassistanceofnotesleftbytheauthor,indicatingthepassagesofthesecondeditiontobereplacedbydesignatedpassages,fromtheFrenchtextpublishedin1873.1ThealterationsthuseffectedinthetextofthesecondeditiongenerallycoincidedwithchangesprescribedbyMarxinasetofMS.instructionsforanEnglishtranslationthatwasplanned,abouttenyearsago,inAmerica,butabandonedchieflyforwantofafitandpropertranslator.ThisMS.wasplacedatourdisposalbyouroldfriendMr.F.A.SorgeofHobokenN.J.

ItdesignatessomefurtherinterpolationsfromtheFrenchedition;but,beingsomanyyearsolderthanthefinalinstructionsforthethirdedition,Ididnotconsidermyselfatlibertytomakeuseofitotherwisethansparingly,andchieflyincaseswhereithelpedusoverdifficulties.Inthesameway,theFrenchtexthasbeenreferredtoinmostofthedifficultpassages,asanindicatorofwhattheauthorhimselfwaspreparedtosacrificewhereversomethingofthefullimportoftheoriginalhadtobesacrificedintherendering.

PrefacetotheEnglishEdition(Engels,1886)29Thereis,however,onedifficultywecouldnotsparethereader:theuseofcertaintermsinasensedifferentfromwhattheyhave,notonlyincommonlife,butinordinaryPoliticalEconomy.Butthiswasunavoidable.

Everynewaspectofascienceinvolvesarevolutioninthetechnicaltermsofthatscience.Thisisbestshownbychemistry,wherethewholeoftheterminologyisradicallychangedaboutonceintwentyyears,andwhereyouwillhardlyfindasingleorganiccompoundthathasnotgonethroughawholeseriesofdifferentnames.PoliticalEconomyhasgenerallybeencontenttotake,justastheywere,thetermsofcommercialandindustriallife,andtooperatewiththem,entirelyfailingtoseethatbysodoing,itconfineditselfwithinthenarrowcircleofideasexpressedbythoseterms.

Thus,thoughperfectlyawarethatbothprofitsandrentarebutsub-divisions,fragmentsofthatunpaidpartoftheproductwhichthelabourerhastosupplytohisemployer(itsfirstappropriator,thoughnotitsultimateexclusiveowner),yetevenclassicalPoliticalEconomyneverwentbeyondthereceivednotionsofprofitsandrents,neverexaminedthisunpaidpartoftheproduct(calledbyMarxsurplus-product)initsintegrityasawhole,andthereforeneverarrivedataclearcomprehension,eitherofitsoriginandnature,orofthelawsthatregulatethesubsequentdistributionofitsvalue.Similarlyallindustry,notagriculturalorhandicraft,isindiscriminatelycomprisedinthetermofmanufacture,andtherebythedistinctionisobliteratedbetweentwogreatandessentiallydifferentperiodsofeconomichistory:theperiodofmanufactureproper,basedonthedivisionofmanuallabour,andtheperiodofmodernindustrybasedonmachinery.Itis,however,self-evidentthatatheorywhichviewsmoderncapitalistproductionasamerepassingstageintheeconomichistoryofmankind,mustmakeuseoftermsdifferentfromthosehabitualtowriterswholookuponthatformofproductionasimperishableand30CAPITALfinal.

Awordrespectingtheauthor'smethodofquotingmaynotbeoutofplace.Inthemajorityofcases,thequotationsserve,intheusualway,asdocumentaryevidenceinsupportofassertionsmadeinthetext.Butinmanyinstances,passagesfromeconomicwritersarequotedinordertoindicatewhen,where,andbywhomacertainpropositionwasforthefirsttimeclearlyenunciated.Thisisdoneincaseswherethepropositionquotedisofimportanceasbeingamoreorlessadequateexpressionoftheconditionsofsocialproductionandexchangeprevalentatthetime,andquiteirrespectiveofMarx'srecognition,orotherwise,ofitsgeneralvalidity.Thesequotations,therefore,supplementthetextbyarunningcommentarytakenfromthehistoryofthescience.

Ourtranslationcomprisesthefirstbookoftheworkonly.Butthisfirstbookisinagreatmeasureawholeinitself,andhasfortwentyyearsrankedasanindependentwork.Thesecondbook,editedinGermanbyme,in1885,isdecidedlyincompletewithoutthethird,whichcannotbepublishedbeforetheendof1887.WhenBookIII.hasbeenbroughtoutintheoriginalGerman,itwillthenbesoonenoughtothinkaboutpreparinganEnglisheditionofboth.

"DasKapital"isoftencalled,ontheContinent,"theBibleoftheworkingclass."Thattheconclusionsarrivedatinthisworkaredailymoreandmorebecomingthefundamentalprinciplesofthegreatworking-classmovement,notonlyinGermanyandSwitzerland,butinFrance,inHollandandBelgium,inAmerica,andeveninItalyandSpain,thateverywheretheworkingclassmoreandmorerecognises,intheseconclusions,themostadequateexpressionofitsconditionandofitsaspirations,nobodyacquaintedwiththatmovementwilldeny.AndinEngland,too,thetheoriesofMarx,evenatthismoment,exerciseapowerfulinfluenceuponthesocialistmovementPrefacetotheEnglishEdition(Engels,1886)31whichisspreadingintheranksof"cultured"peoplenolessthaninthoseoftheworkingclass.Butthatisnotall.ThetimeisrapidlyapproachingwhenathoroughexaminationofEngland'seconomicpositionwillimposeitselfasanirresistiblenationalnecessity.

Theworkingoftheindustrialsystemofthiscountry,impossiblewithoutaconstantandrapidextensionofproduction,andthereforeofmarkets,iscomingtoadeadstop.

FreeTradehasexhausteditsresources;evenManchesterdoubtsthisitsquondameconomicgospel.2Foreignindustry,rapidlydeveloping,staresEnglishproductioninthefaceeverywhere,notonlyinprotected,butalsoinneutralmarkets,andevenonthissideoftheChannel.Whiletheproductivepowerincreasesinageometric,theextensionofmarketsproceedsatbestinanarithmeticratio.Thedecennialcycleofstagnation,prosperity,over-productionandcrisis,everrecurrentfrom1825to1867,seemsindeedtohaverunitscourse;butonlytolandusinthesloughofdespondofapermanentandchronicdepression.

Thesighedforperiodofprosperitywillnotcome;asoftenasweseemtoperceiveitsheraldingsymptoms,sooftendotheyagainvanishintoair.Meanwhile,eachsucceedingwinterbringsupafreshthegreatquestion,"whattodowiththeunemployed";butwhilethenumberoftheunemployedkeepsswellingfromyeartoyear,thereisnobodytoanswerthatquestion;andwecanalmostcalculatethemomentwhentheunemployedlosingpatiencewilltaketheirownfateintotheirownhands.Surely,atsuchamoment,thevoiceoughttobeheardofamanwhosewholetheoryistheresultofalifelongstudyoftheeconomichistoryandconditionofEngland,andwhomthatstudyledtotheconclusionthat,atleastinEurope,Englandistheonlycountrywheretheinevitablesocialrevolutionmightbeeffectedentirelybypeacefulandlegalmeans.HecertainlyneverforgottoaddthathehardlyexpectedtheEnglishrulingclassestosubmit,withouta"pro-slaveryrebellion,"tothispeacefulandlegalrevolution.

NOTES:1"LeCapital,"parKarlMarx.TraductiondeM.J.Roy,entierementreviséeparl'auteur.Paris.Lachatre.Thistranslation,especiallyinthelatterpartofthebook,containsconsiderablealterationsinandadditionstothetextofthesecondGermanedition.

2AtthequarterlymeetingoftheManchesterChamberofCommerce,heldthisafternoon,awarmdiscussiontookplaceonthesubjectofFreeTrade.Aresolutionwasmovedtotheeffectthat"havingwaitedinvain40yearsforothernationstofollowtheFreeTradeexampleofEngland,thisChamberthinksthetimehasnowarrivedtoreconsiderthatposition."Theresolutionwasrejectedbyamajorityofoneonly,thefiguresbeing21for,and22against.–EveningStandard,Nov.

1,1886.

PREFACETOTHEFOURTHGERMANEDITION(ENGELS,1890)hefourtheditionrequiredthatIshouldestablishTinfinalform,asnearlyaspossible,bothtextandfootnotes.ThefollowingbriefexplanationwillshowhowIhavefulfilledthistask.

AfteragaincomparingtheFrencheditionandMarx'smanuscriptremarksIhavemadesomefurtheradditionstotheGermantextfromthattranslation.

Theywillbefoundonp.80(3rdedition,p.88)[presentedition,pp.117-18],pp.458-60(3rdedition,pp.509-10)[presentedition,pp.462-65],1pp.547-51(3rdedition,p.600)[presentedition,pp.548-51],pp.591-93(3rdedition,p.644)[presentedition,587-89]andp.596(3rdedition,p.648)[presentedition,p.591]inNote1.IhavealsofollowedtheexampleoftheFrenchandEnglisheditionsbyputtingthelongfootnoteontheminersintothetext(3rdedition,pp.509-15;4thedition,pp.461-67)[presentedition,pp.465-71].Othersmallalterationsareofapurelytechnicalnature.

Further,Ihaveaddedafewmoreexplanatorynotes,especiallywherechangedhistoricalconditionsseemedtodemandthis.Alltheseadditionalnotesareenclosedinsquarebracketsandmarkedeitherwithmyinitialsor"D.H."2MeanwhileacompleterevisionofthenumerousquotationshadbeenmadenecessarybythepublicationoftheEnglishedition.Forthisedition34CAPITALMarx'syoungestdaughter,Eleanor,undertooktocompareallthequotationswiththeiroriginals,sothatthosetakenfromEnglishsources,whichconstitutethevastmajority,aregiventherenotasre-translationsfromtheGermanbutintheoriginalEnglishform.Inpreparingthefourtheditionitwasthereforeincumbentuponmetoconsultthistext.Thecomparisonrevealedvarioussmallinaccuracies.Pagenumberswronglyindicated,duepartlytomistakesincopyingfromnotebooks,andpartlytotheaccumulatedmisprintsofthreeeditions;misplacedquotationoromissionmarks,whichcannotbeavoidedwhenamassofquotationsiscopiedfromnote-bookextracts;hereandtheresomeratherunhappytranslationofaword;particularpassagesquotedfromtheoldParisnotebooksof1843-45,whenMarxdidnotknowEnglishandwasreadingEnglisheconomistsinFrenchtranslations,sothatthedoubletranslationyieldedaslightlydifferentshadeofmeaning,e.g.,inthecaseofSteuart,Ure,etc.,wheretheEnglishtexthadnowtobeused–andothersimilarinstancesoftriflinginaccuracyornegligence.

Butanyonewhocomparesthefourtheditionwiththepreviousonescanconvincehimselfthatallthislaboriousprocessofemendationhasnotproducedthesmallestchangeinthebookworthspeakingof.Therewasonlyonequotationwhichcouldnotbetraced–theonefromRichardJones(4thedition,p.562,note47).Marxprobablyslippedupwhenwritingdownthetitleofthebook.3Alltheotherquotationsretaintheircogencyinfull,orhaveenhanceditduetotheirpresentexactform.

Here,however,Iamobligedtoreverttoanoldstory.

IknowofonlyonecaseinwhichtheaccuracyofaquotationgivenbyMarxhasbeencalledinquestion.

ButastheissuedraggedbeyondhislifetimeIcannotwellignoreithere.

OnMarch7,1872,thereappearedintheBerlinConcordia,organoftheGermanManufacturers'PREFACETOTHEFOURTHGERMANEDITION(ENGELS,1890)35Association,ananonymousarticleentitled:"HowKarlMarxQuotes."Itwashereasserted,withaneffervescenceofmoralindignationandunparliamentarylanguage,thatthequotationfromGladstone'sBudgetSpeechofApril16,1863(intheInauguralAddressoftheInternationalWorkingmen'sAssociation,1864,andrepeatedin"Capital,"Vol.I,p.

617,4thedition;p.671,3rdedition)[presentedition,p.610],hadbeenfalsified;thatnotasinglewordofthesentence:"thisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower...is...entirelyconfinedtoclassesofproperty"wastobefoundinthe(semi-official)stenographicreportinHansard."ButthissentenceisnowheretobefoundinGladstone'sspeech.Exactlytheoppositeisstatedthere."(Inboldtype):"Thissentence,bothinformandsubstance,isalieinsertedbyMarx."Marx,towhomthenumberofConcordiawassentthefollowingMay,answeredtheanonymousauthorintheVolksstaatofJune1st.Ashecouldnotrecallwhichnewspaperreporthehadusedforthequotation,helimitedhimselftociting,firsttheequivalentquotationfromtwoEnglishpublications,andthenthereportinTheTimes,accordingtowhichGladstonesays:"Thatisthestateofthecaseasregardsthewealthofthiscountry.Imustsayforone,Ishouldlookalmostwithapprehensionandwithpainuponthisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower,ifitweremybeliefthatitwasconfinedtoclasseswhoareineasycircumstances.Thistakesnocognisanceatalloftheconditionofthelabouringpopulation.TheaugmentationIhavedescribedandwhichisfounded,Ithink,uponaccuratereturns,isanaugmentationentirelyconfinedtoclassespossessedofproperty."ThusGladstonesaysherethathewouldbesorryifitwereso,butitisso:thisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpowerisentirelyconfinedtoclassesofproperty.Andastothesemi-officialHansard,Marx36CAPITALgoesontosay:"Intheversionwhichheafterwardsmanipulated[zurechtgestümpert],Mr.Gladstonewasastuteenoughtoobliterate[wegzupfuschen]thispassage,which,comingfromanEnglishChancelloroftheExchequer,wascertainlycompromising.

This,bytheway,isatraditionalusageintheEnglishparliamentandnotaninventiongottenupbylittleLaskeragainstBebel."Theanonymouswritergetsangrierandangrier.InhisanswerinConcordia,July4th,hesweepsasidesecond-handsourcesanddemurelysuggeststhatitisthe"custom"toquoteparliamentaryspeechesfromthestenographicreport;adding,however,thatTheTimesreport(whichincludesthe"falsified"sentence)andtheHansardreport(whichomitsit)are"substantiallyincompleteagreement,"whileTheTimesreportlikewisecontains"theexactoppositetothatnotoriouspassageintheInauguralAddress."ThisfellowcarefullyconcealsthefactthatTheTimesreportexplicitlyincludesthatself-same"notoriouspassage,"alongsideofitsalleged"opposite."Despiteallthis,however,theanonymousonefeelsthatheisstuckfastandthatonlysomenewdodgecansavehim.Thus,whilsthisarticlebristles,aswehavejustshown,with"impudentmendacity"andisinterlardedwithsuchedifyingtermsofabuseas"badfaith,""dishonesty,""lyingallegation,""thatspuriousquotation,""impudentmendacity,""aquotationentirelyfalsified,""thisfalsification,""simplyinfamous,"etc.,hefindsitnecessarytodiverttheissuetoanotherdomainandthereforepromises"toexplaininasecondarticlethemeaningwhichwe(thenon-mendaciousanonymousone)attributetothecontentofGladstone'swords."Asifhisparticularopinion,ofnodecisivevalueasitis,hadanythingwhatevertodowiththematter.ThissecondarticlewasprintedinConcordiaonJuly11th.

MarxrepliedagainintheVolksstaatofAugust7thnowgivingalsothereportsofthepassageinquestionPREFACETOTHEFOURTHGERMANEDITION(ENGELS,1890)37fromtheMorningStarandtheMorningAdvertiserofApril17,1863.AccordingtobothreportsGladstonesaidthathewouldlookwithapprehension,etc.,uponthisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpowerifhebelievedittobeconfinedto"classesineasycircumstances."Butthisaugmentationwasinfact"entirelyconfinedtoclassespossessedofproperty."Sothesereportstooreproducedwordforwordthesentenceallegedtohavebeen"lyinglyinserted."Marxfurtherestablishedoncemore,byacomparisonofTheTimesandtheHansardtexts,thatthissentence,whichthreenewspaperreportsofidenticalcontent,appearingindependentlyofoneanotherthenextmorning,provedtohavebeenreallyuttered,wasmissingfromtheHansardreport,revisedaccordingtothefamiliar"custom,"andthatGladstone,touseMarx'swords,"hadafterwardsconjureditaway."InconclusionMarxstatedthathehadnotimeforfurtherintercoursewiththeanonymousone.Thelatteralsoseemstohavehadenough,atanyrateMarxreceivednofurtherissuesofConcordia.

Withthisthematterappearedtobedeadandburied.

True,onceortwicelaterontherereachedus,frompersonsintouchwiththeUniversityofCambridge,mysteriousrumoursofanunspeakableliterarycrimewhichMarxwassupposedtohavecommittedin"Capital,"butdespiteallinvestigationnothingmoredefinitecouldbelearned.Then,onNovember29,1883,eightmonthsafterMarx'sdeath,thereappearedinTheTimesaletterheadedTrinityCollege,Cambridge,andsignedSedleyTaylor,inwhichthislittleman,whodabblesinthemildestsortofco-operativeaffairs,seizinguponsomechancepretextorother,atlastenlightenedus,notonlyconcerningthosevagueCambridgerumours,butalsotheanonymousoneinConcordia.

"Whatappearsextremelysingular,"saysthelittlemanfromTrinityCollege,"isthatitwasreserved38CAPITALforProfessorBrentano(thenoftheUniversityofBreslau,nowofthatofStrassburg)toexpose...thebadfaithwhichhadmanifestlydictatedthecitationmadefromMr.Gladstone'sspeechinthe[Inaugural]Address.HerrKarlMarx,who...attemptedtodefendthecitation,hadthehardihood,inthedeadlyshiftstowhichBrentano'smasterlyconductoftheattackspeedilyreducedhim,toassertthatMr.Gladstonehad'manipulated'thereportofhisspeechinTheTimesofApril17,1863,beforeitappearedinHansard,inorderto'obliterate'apassagewhich'wascertainlycompromising'foranEnglishChancelloroftheExchequer.OnBrentano'sshowing,byadetailedcomparisonoftexts,thatthereportsofTheTimesandofHansardagreedinutterlyexcludingthemeaningwhichcraftilyisolatedquotationhadputuponMr.

Gladstone'swords,Marxwithdrewfromfurthercontroversyunderthepleaof'wantoftime.'"Sothatwasatthebottomofthewholebusiness!

AndthuswastheanonymouscampaignofHerrBrentanoinConcordiagloriouslyreflectedintheproductivelyco-operatingimaginationofCambridge.

Thushestood,swordinhand,andthushebattled,inhis"masterlyconductoftheattack,"thisSt.GeorgeoftheGermanManufacturers'Association,whilsttheinfernaldragonMarx,"indeadlyshifts,""speedily"breathedhislastathisfeet.

AllthisAriostianbattlescene,however,onlyservestoconcealthedodgesofourSt.George.Herethereisnolongertalkof"lyinginsertion"or"falsification,"butof"craftilyisolatedquotation."Thewholeissuewasshifted,andSt.GeorgeandhisCambridgesquireverywellknewwhy.

EleanorMarxrepliedinthemonthlyjournalTo-day(February1884),asTheTimesrefusedtopublishherletter.Sheoncemorefocussedthedebateonthesolequestionatissue:hadMarx"lyinglyinserted"thatsentenceornot?TothisMr.SedleyTayloransweredPREFACETOTHEFOURTHGERMANEDITION(ENGELS,1890)39that"thequestionwhetheraparticularsentencedidordidnotoccurinMr.Gladstone'sspeech"hadbeen,inhisopinion,"ofverysubordinateimportance"intheBrentano-Marxcontroversy,"comparedtotheissuewhetherthequotationindisputewasmadewiththeintentionofconveying,orofpervertingMr.

Gladstone'smeaning."HethenadmitsthatTheTimesreportcontains"averbalcontrariety";but,ifthecontextisrightlyinterpreted,i.e.,intheGladstonianLiberalsense,itshowswhatMr.Gladstonemeanttosay.(To-day,March,1884.)ThemostcomicpointhereisthatourlittleCambridgemannowinsistsuponquotingthespeechnotfromHansard,as,accordingtotheanonymousBrentano,itis"customary"todo,butfromTheTimesreport,whichthesameBrentanohadcharacterisedas"necessarilybungling."Naturallyso,forinHansardthevexatioussentenceismissing.

EleanorMarxhadnodifficulty(inthesameissueofTo-day)indissolvingallthisargumentationintothinair.EitherMr.Taylorhadreadthecontroversyof1872,inwhichcasehewasnowmakingnotonly"lyinginsertions"butalso"lying"suppressions;orhehadnotreaditandoughttoremainsilent.IneithercaseitwascertainthathedidnotdaretomaintainforamomenttheaccusationofhisfriendBrentanothatMarxhadmadea"lying"addition.Onthecontrary,Marx,itnowseems,hadnotlyinglyaddedbutsuppressedanimportantsentence.Butthissamesentenceisquotedonpage5oftheInauguralAddress,afewlinesbeforethealleged"lyinginsertion."Andastothe"contrariety"inGladstone'sspeech,isitnotMarxhimself,whoin"Capital,"p.618(3rdedition,p.

672),note105[presentedition,p.611,Note1],refersto"thecontinualcryingcontradictionsinGladstone'sBudgetspeechesof1863and1864"?OnlyhedoesnotpresumeàlaMr.SedleyTaylortoresolvethemintocomplacentLiberalsentiments.EleanorMarx,inconcludingherreply,finallysumsupasfollows:40CAPITAL"Marxhasnotsuppressedanythingworthquoting,neitherhashe'lyingly'addedanything.Buthehasrestored,rescuedfromoblivion,aparticularsentenceofoneofMr.Gladstone'sspeeches,asentencewhichhadindubitablybeenpronounced,butwhichsomehoworotherhadfounditsway–outofHansard."WiththatMr.SedleyTaylortoohadhadenough,andtheresultofthiswholeprofessorialcobweb,spunoutovertwodecadesandtwogreatcountries,isthatnobodyhassincedaredtocastanyotheraspersionuponMarx'sliteraryhonesty;whilstMr.SedleyTaylor,nodoubt,willhereafterputaslittleconfidenceintheliterarywarbulletinsofHerrBrentanoasHerrBrentanowillinthepapalinfallibilityofHansard.

FrederickEngelsLondon.

June25.1890NOTES:1IntheEnglisheditionof1887thisadditionwasmadebyEngelshimself.–Ed.

2Inthepresenteditiontheyareputintosquarebracketsandmarkedwiththeinitials3Marxwasnotmistakeninthetitleofthebookbutinthepage.Heputdown36insteadof37.(Seepp.560-61ofthepresentedition.)–Ed.

1GeneralPrefaceMillionsofChinesearelearningEnglishtoacquireknowledgeandskillsforcommunicationinaworldwhereEnglishhasbecometheprimarylanguageforinternationaldiscourse.YetnotmanylearnershavecometorealizethatthecommandoftheEnglishlanguagealsoenablesthemtohaveaneasyaccesstotheworldliteraryclassicssuchasShakespeare'splays,Shelley'spoems,MarkTwain'snovelsandNietzsche'sworkswhichareanimportantpartofliberal-artseducation.Themostimportantgoalsofuniversitiesarenotvocational,thatis,notmerelythegivingofknowledgeandthetrainingofskills.

Inabroadsense,educationaimsatbroadeningyoungpeople'smentalhorizon,cultivatingvirtuesandshapingtheircharacter.Lincoln,MaoZedongandmanyothergreatleadersandpersonagesofdistinctiondeclaredhowtheydrewimmenseinspirationandstrengthfromliteraryworks.Asamatteroffact,manyofthemhadaspiredtobecomewritersintheiryoungage.AlexandertheGreat(356-323B.C.)issaidtotakealongwithhimtwothings,wakingorsleeping:abookandadagger,andthebookisIliad,aliteraryclassic,byHomer.Hewouldputthesetwomuchtreasuredthingsunderhispillowwhenhewenttobed.

2Today,wefaceanunprecedentedcomplexandchangingworld.Tocopewiththisrapidchangingworldrequiresnotonlycommunicationskills,butalsoadequateknowledgeofculturesotherthanourownhomeculture.

Amongthemostimportantdevelopmentsinpresent-dayglobalcultureistheeverincreasingculturalexchangesandunderstandingbetweendifferentnationsandpeoples.

Andoneofthebestwaystoknowforeignculturesistoreadtheirliteraryworks,particularlytheirliteraryclassics,thesoulofacountry'sculture.Theyalsogiveyouthebestlanguageandthefeelingofsublimity.

LiaoningPeople'sPublishingHouseistobecongratulatedforitsforesightandcourageinmakinganewseriesofworldliteraryclassics(BedsideClassics)availabletothereadingpublic.ItishopedthatpeoplewithanadequatecommandoftheEnglishlanguagewillreadthem,likethemandkeepthemastheirlifetimecompanions.

IamconvincedthattheserieswillmakeanimportantcontributiontotheliteraryeducationoftheyoungpeopleinChina.Atatimewhenthewholecountryisemphasizing"spiritualcivilization",itiscertainlyaverytimelyventuretoputouttheseriesofliteraryclassicsforliteraryandculturaleducation.

ZhangZhongzaiProfessorBeijingForeignStudiesUniversityJuly,2013Beijing3

总序经典名著的语言无疑是最凝练、最优美、最有审美价值的。雪莱的那句“如冬已来临，春天还会远吗？”让多少陷于绝望的人重新燃起希望之火，鼓起勇气，迎接严冬过后的春天。徐志摩一句“悄悄的我走了，正如我悄悄的来；我挥一挥衣袖，不带走一片云彩”又让多少人陶醉。尼采的那句“上帝死了”，又给多少人以振聋发聩的启迪作用。

读经典名著，尤其阅读原汁原味作品，可以怡情养性，增长知识，加添才干，丰富情感，开阔视野。所谓“经典”，其实就是作者所属的那个民族的文化积淀，是那个民族的灵魂缩影。英国戏剧泰斗莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》和《麦克白》等、“意大利语言之父”的但丁的《神曲》之《地狱篇》《炼狱篇》及《天堂篇》、爱尔兰世界一流作家詹姆斯·乔伊斯的《尤利西斯》及《一个艺术家的肖像》等、美国风趣而笔法超一流的著名小说家马克·吐温的《哈克历险记》以及《汤姆索亚历险记》等，德国著名哲学家尼采的《查拉图斯特拉如是说》及《快乐的科学》等等，都为塑造自己民族的文化积淀，做出了永恒的贡献，也同时向世界展示了他们所属的民族的优美剪影。

4很多著名领袖如林肯、毛泽东等伟大人物，也都曾从经典名著中汲取力量，甚至获得治国理念。耶鲁大学教授查尔斯·希尔曾在题为《经典与治国理念》的文章，阐述了读书与治国之间的绝妙关系。他这样写道：“在几乎所有经典名著中，都可以找到让人叹为观止、深藏其中的治国艺术原则。”经典名著，不仅仅有治国理念，更具提升读者审美情趣的功能。世界上不同时代、不同地域的优秀经典作品，都存在一个共同属性：歌颂赞美人间的真善美，揭露抨击世间的假恶丑。

读欧美自但丁以来的经典名著，你会看到，西方无论是在漫长的黑暗时期，抑或进入现代进程时期，总有经典作品问世，对世间的负面，进行冷峻的批判。与此同时，也有更多的大家作品问世，热情讴歌人间的真诚与善良，使读者不由自主地沉浸于经典作品的审美情感之中。

英语经典名著，显然是除了汉语经典名著以外，人类整个进程中至关重要的文化遗产的一部分。从历史上看，英语是全世界经典阅读作品中，使用得最广泛的国际性语言。这一事实，没有产生根本性变化。

本世纪相当长一段时间，这一事实也似乎不会发生任何变化。而要更深入地了解并切身感受英语经典名著的风采，阅读原汁原味的英语经典作品的过程，显然是必不可少的。

辽宁人民出版社及时并隆重推出“最经典英语文库”系列丛书，是具有远见与卓识的出版行为。我相信，这套既可供阅读，同时也具收藏价值的英语原版经5

典作品系列丛书，在帮助人们了解什么才是经典作品的同时，也一定会成为广大英语爱好者、大中学生以及学生家长们挚爱的“最经典英语文库”。

北京外国语大学英语学院北外公共外交研究中心欧美文学研究中心主任全国英国文学学会名誉会长张中载教授2013年7月于北京PART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEYCHAPTER1:COMMODITIESSection1:TheTwoFactorsofaCommodity:Use-ValueandValue(TheSubstanceofValueandtheMagnitudeofValue)hewealthofthosesocietiesinwhichtheTcapitalistmodeofproductionprevails,presentsitselfas"animmenseaccumulationofcommodities,"1itsunitbeingasinglecommodity.Ourinvestigationmustthereforebeginwiththeanalysisofacommodity.

Acommodityis,inthefirstplace,anobjectoutsideus,athingthatbyitspropertiessatisfieshumanwantsofsomesortoranother.Thenatureofsuchwants,whether,forinstance,theyspringfromthestomachorfromfancy,makesnodifference.2Neitherarewehereconcernedtoknowhowtheobjectsatisfiesthesewants,whetherdirectlyasmeansofsubsistence,orindirectlyasmeansofproduction.

Everyusefulthing,asiron,paper,&c.,maybelookedatfromthetwopointsofviewofqualityandquantity.Itisanassemblageofmanyproperties,andmaythereforebeofuseinvariousways.Todiscoverthevarioususesofthingsistheworkofhistory.3Soalsoistheestablishmentofsocially-recognizedstandardsofmeasureforthequantitiesoftheseusefulobjects.Thediversityofthesemeasureshasitsoriginpartlyinthediversenatureoftheobjectstobe4CAPITALmeasured,partlyinconvention.

Theutilityofathingmakesitausevalue.4Butthisutilityisnotathingofair.Beinglimitedbythephysicalpropertiesofthecommodity,ithasnoexistenceapartfromthatcommodity.Acommodity,suchasiron,corn,oradiamond,istherefore,sofarasitisamaterialthing,ausevalue,somethinguseful.

Thispropertyofacommodityisindependentoftheamountoflabourrequiredtoappropriateitsusefulqualities.Whentreatingofusevalue,wealwaysassumetobedealingwithdefinitequantities,suchasdozensofwatches,yardsoflinen,ortonsofiron.Theusevaluesofcommoditiesfurnishthematerialforaspecialstudy,thatofthecommercialknowledgeofcommodities.5Usevaluesbecomearealityonlybyuseorconsumption:theyalsoconstitutethesubstanceofallwealth,whatevermaybethesocialformofthatwealth.Intheformofsocietyweareabouttoconsider,theyare,inaddition,thematerialdepositoriesofexchangevalue.

Exchangevalue,atfirstsight,presentsitselfasaquantitativerelation,astheproportioninwhichvaluesinuseofonesortareexchangedforthoseofanothersort,6arelationconstantlychangingwithtimeandplace.Henceexchangevalueappearstobesomethingaccidentalandpurelyrelative,andconsequentlyanintrinsicvalue,i.e.,anexchangevaluethatisinseparablyconnectedwith,inherentincommodities,seemsacontradictioninterms.7Letusconsiderthematteralittlemoreclosely.

Agivencommodity,e.g.,aquarterofwheatisexchangedforxblacking,ysilk,orzgold,&c.–inshort,forothercommoditiesinthemostdifferentproportions.Insteadofoneexchangevalue,thewheathas,therefore,agreatmany.Butsincexblacking,ysilk,orzgold&c.,eachrepresentstheexchangevalueofonequarterofwheat,xblacking,ysilk,zgold,&c.,must,asexchangevalues,bereplaceablebyPART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEY5eachother,orequaltoeachother.Therefore,first:thevalidexchangevaluesofagivencommodityexpresssomethingequal;secondly,exchangevalue,generally,isonlythemodeofexpression,thephenomenalform,ofsomethingcontainedinit,yetdistinguishablefromit.

Letustaketwocommodities,e.g.,cornandiron.

Theproportionsinwhichtheyareexchangeable,whateverthoseproportionsmaybe,canalwaysberepresentedbyanequationinwhichagivenquantityofcornisequatedtosomequantityofiron:e.g.,1quartercorn=xcwt.iron.Whatdoesthisequationtellus?Ittellsusthatintwodifferentthings–in1quarterofcornandxcwt.ofiron,thereexistsinequalquantitiessomethingcommontoboth.Thetwothingsmustthereforebeequaltoathird,whichinitselfisneithertheonenortheother.Eachofthem,sofarasitisexchangevalue,mustthereforebereducibletothisthird.

Asimplegeometricalillustrationwillmakethisclear.Inordertocalculateandcomparetheareasofrectilinearfigures,wedecomposethemintotriangles.

Buttheareaofthetriangleitselfisexpressedbysomethingtotallydifferentfromitsvisiblefigure,namely,byhalftheproductofthebasemultipliedbythealtitude.Inthesamewaytheexchangevaluesofcommoditiesmustbecapableofbeingexpressedintermsofsomethingcommontothemall,ofwhichthingtheyrepresentagreaterorlessquantity.

Thiscommon"something"cannotbeeitherageometrical,achemical,oranyothernaturalpropertyofcommodities.Suchpropertiesclaimourattentiononlyinsofarastheyaffecttheutilityofthosecommodities,makethemusevalues.Buttheexchangeofcommoditiesisevidentlyanactcharacterisedbyatotalabstractionfromusevalue.Thenoneusevalueisjustasgoodasanother,providedonlyitbepresentinsufficientquantity.Or,asoldBarbonsays,6CAPITAL"onesortofwaresareasgoodasanother,ifthevaluesbeequal.Thereisnodifferenceordistinctioninthingsofequalvalue...Anhundredpounds'worthofleadoriron,isofasgreatvalueasonehundredpounds'worthofsilverorgold."8Asusevalues,commoditiesare,aboveall,ofdifferentqualities,butasexchangevaluestheyaremerelydifferentquantities,andconsequentlydonotcontainanatomofusevalue.

Ifthenweleaveoutofconsiderationtheusevalueofcommodities,theyhaveonlyonecommonpropertyleft,thatofbeingproductsoflabour.Buteventheproductoflabouritselfhasundergoneachangeinourhands.Ifwemakeabstractionfromitsusevalue,wemakeabstractionatthesametimefromthematerialelementsandshapesthatmaketheproductausevalue;weseeinitnolongeratable,ahouse,yarn,oranyotherusefulthing.Itsexistenceasamaterialthingisputoutofsight.Neithercanitanylongerberegardedastheproductofthelabourofthejoiner,themason,thespinner,orofanyotherdefinitekindofproductivelabour.Alongwiththeusefulqualitiesoftheproductsthemselves,weputoutofsightboththeusefulcharacterofthevariouskindsoflabourembodiedinthem,andtheconcreteformsofthatlabour;thereisnothingleftbutwhatiscommontothemall;allarereducedtooneandthesamesortoflabour,humanlabourintheabstract.

Letusnowconsidertheresidueofeachoftheseproducts;itconsistsofthesameunsubstantialrealityineach,amerecongelationofhomogeneoushumanlabour,oflabourpowerexpendedwithoutregardtothemodeofitsexpenditure.Allthatthesethingsnowtellusis,thathumanlabourpowerhasbeenexpendedintheirproduction,thathumanlabourisembodiedinthem.Whenlookedatascrystalsofthissocialsubstance,commontothemall,theyare–Values.

WehaveseenthatwhencommoditiesarePART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEY7exchanged,theirexchangevaluemanifestsitselfassomethingtotallyindependentoftheirusevalue.Butifweabstractfromtheirusevalue,thereremainstheirValueasdefinedabove.Therefore,thecommonsubstancethatmanifestsitselfintheexchangevalueofcommodities,whenevertheyareexchanged,istheirvalue.Theprogressofourinvestigationwillshowthatexchangevalueistheonlyforminwhichthevalueofcommoditiescanmanifestitselforbeexpressed.Forthepresent,however,wehavetoconsiderthenatureofvalueindependentlyofthis,itsform.

Ausevalue,orusefularticle,therefore,hasvalueonlybecausehumanlabourintheabstracthasbeenembodiedormaterialisedinit.How,then,isthemagnitudeofthisvaluetobemeasured?Plainly,bythequantityofthevalue-creatingsubstance,thelabour,containedinthearticle.Thequantityoflabour,however,ismeasuredbyitsduration,andlabourtimeinitsturnfindsitsstandardinweeks,days,andhours.

Somepeoplemightthinkthatifthevalueofacommodityisdeterminedbythequantityoflabourspentonit,themoreidleandunskilfulthelabourer,themorevaluablewouldhiscommoditybe,becausemoretimewouldberequiredinitsproduction.Thelabour,however,thatformsthesubstanceofvalue,ishomogeneoushumanlabour,expenditureofoneuniformlabourpower.Thetotallabourpowerofsociety,whichisembodiedinthesumtotalofthevaluesofallcommoditiesproducedbythatsociety,countshereasonehomogeneousmassofhumanlabourpower,composedthoughitbeofinnumerableindividualunits.Eachoftheseunitsisthesameasanyother,sofarasithasthecharacteroftheaveragelabourpowerofsociety,andtakeseffectassuch;thatis,sofarasitrequiresforproducingacommodity,nomoretimethanisneededonanaverage,nomorethanissociallynecessary.Thelabourtimesociallynecessaryisthatrequiredtoproduceanarticleunder8CAPITALthenormalconditionsofproduction,andwiththeaveragedegreeofskillandintensityprevalentatthetime.Theintroductionofpower-loomsintoEnglandprobablyreducedbyone-halfthelabourrequiredtoweaveagivenquantityofyarnintocloth.Thehand-loomweavers,asamatteroffact,continuedtorequirethesametimeasbefore;butforallthat,theproductofonehouroftheirlabourrepresentedafterthechangeonlyhalfanhour'ssociallabour,andconsequentlyfelltoone-halfitsformervalue.

Weseethenthatthatwhichdeterminesthemagnitudeofthevalueofanyarticleistheamountoflaboursociallynecessary,orthelabourtimesociallynecessaryforitsproduction.9Eachindividualcommodity,inthisconnexion,istobeconsideredasanaveragesampleofitsclass.10Commodities,therefore,inwhichequalquantitiesoflabourareembodied,orwhichcanbeproducedinthesametime,havethesamevalue.Thevalueofonecommodityistothevalueofanyother,asthelabourtimenecessaryfortheproductionoftheoneistothatnecessaryfortheproductionoftheother."Asvalues,allcommoditiesareonlydefinitemassesofcongealedlabourtime."11Thevalueofacommoditywouldthereforeremainconstant,ifthelabourtimerequiredforitsproductionalsoremainedconstant.Butthelatterchangeswitheveryvariationintheproductivenessoflabour.Thisproductivenessisdeterminedbyvariouscircumstances,amongstothers,bytheaverageamountofskilloftheworkmen,thestateofscience,andthedegreeofitspracticalapplication,thesocialorganisationofproduction,theextentandcapabilitiesofthemeansofproduction,andbyphysicalconditions.Forexample,thesameamountoflabourinfavourableseasonsisembodiedin8bushelsofcorn,andinunfavourable,onlyinfour.Thesamelabourextractsfromrichminesmoremetalthanfrompoormines.DiamondsareofveryrareoccurrenceonPART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEY9theearth'ssurface,andhencetheirdiscoverycosts,onanaverage,agreatdealoflabourtime.Consequentlymuchlabourisrepresentedinasmallcompass.Jacobdoubtswhethergoldhaseverbeenpaidforatitsfullvalue.Thisappliesstillmoretodiamonds.AccordingtoEschwege,thetotalproduceoftheBraziliandiamondminesfortheeightyyears,endingin1823,hadnotrealisedthepriceofone-and-a-halfyears'averageproduceofthesugarandcoffeeplantationsofthesamecountry,althoughthediamondscostmuchmorelabour,andthereforerepresentedmorevalue.

Withrichermines,thesamequantityoflabourwouldembodyitselfinmorediamonds,andtheirvaluewouldfall.Ifwecouldsucceedatasmallexpenditureoflabour,inconvertingcarbonintodiamonds,theirvaluemightfallbelowthatofbricks.Ingeneral,thegreatertheproductivenessoflabour,thelessisthelabourtimerequiredfortheproductionofanarticle,thelessistheamountoflabourcrystallisedinthatarticle,andthelessisitsvalue;andviceversa,thelesstheproductivenessoflabour,thegreateristhelabourtimerequiredfortheproductionofanarticle,andthegreaterisitsvalue.Thevalueofacommodity,therefore,variesdirectlyasthequantity,andinverselyastheproductiveness,ofthelabourincorporatedinit.*Athingcanbeausevalue,withouthavingvalue.

Thisisthecasewheneveritsutilitytomanisnotduetolabour.Suchareair,virginsoil,naturalmeadows,&c.Athingcanbeuseful,andtheproductofhuman*Thefollowingpassageoccurredonlyinthefirstedition.

"Nowweknowthesubstanceofvalue.Itislabour.Weknowthemeasureofitsmagnitude.Itislabourtime.Theform,whichstampsvalueasexchange-value,remainstobeanalysed.

Butbeforethisweneedtodevelopthecharacteristicswehavealreadyfoundsomewhatmorefully."TakenfromthePenguineditionof"Capital,"translatedbyBenFowkes.

10CAPITALlabour,withoutbeingacommodity.Whoeverdirectlysatisfieshiswantswiththeproduceofhisownlabour,creates,indeed,usevalues,butnotcommodities.Inordertoproducethelatter,hemustnotonlyproduceusevalues,butusevaluesforothers,socialusevalues.

(Andnotonlyforothers,withoutmore.Themediaevalpeasantproducedquit-rent-cornforhisfeudallordandtithe-cornforhisparson.Butneitherthequit-rent-cornnorthetithe-cornbecamecommoditiesbyreasonofthefactthattheyhadbeenproducedforothers.Tobecomeacommodityaproductmustbetransferredtoanother,whomitwillserveasausevalue,bymeansofanexchange.)12Lastlynothingcanhavevalue,withoutbeinganobjectofutility.Ifthethingisuseless,soisthelabourcontainedinit;thelabourdoesnotcountaslabour,andthereforecreatesnovalue.

Section2:TheTwo-foldCharacteroftheLabourEmbodiedinCommoditiesAtfirstsightacommoditypresenteditselftousasacomplexoftwothings–usevalueandexchangevalue.

Lateron,wesawalsothatlabour,too,possessesthesametwo-foldnature;for,sofarasitfindsexpressioninvalue,itdoesnotpossessthesamecharacteristicsthatbelongtoitasacreatorofusevalues.Iwasthefirsttopointoutandtoexaminecriticallythistwo-foldnatureofthelabourcontainedincommodities.Asthispointisthepivotonwhichaclearcomprehensionofpoliticaleconomyturns,wemustgomoreintodetail.

Letustaketwocommoditiessuchasacoatand10yardsoflinen,andlettheformerbedoublethevalueofthelatter,sothat,if10yardsoflinen=W,thecoat=2W.

Thecoatisausevaluethatsatisfiesaparticularwant.Itsexistenceistheresultofaspecialsortofproductiveactivity,thenatureofwhichisdeterminedPART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEY11byitsaim,modeofoperation,subject,means,andresult.Thelabour,whoseutilityisthusrepresentedbythevalueinuseofitsproduct,orwhichmanifestsitselfbymakingitsproductausevalue,wecallusefullabour.Inthisconnectionweconsideronlyitsusefuleffect.

Asthecoatandthelinenaretwoqualitativelydifferentusevalues,soalsoarethetwoformsoflabourthatproducethem,tailoringandweaving.

Werethesetwoobjectsnotqualitativelydifferent,notproducedrespectivelybylabourofdifferentquality,theycouldnotstandtoeachotherintherelationofcommodities.Coatsarenotexchangedforcoats,oneusevalueisnotexchangedforanotherofthesamekind.

Toallthedifferentvarietiesofvaluesinusetherecorrespondasmanydifferentkindsofusefullabour,classifiedaccordingtotheorder,genus,species,andvarietytowhichtheybelonginthesocialdivisionoflabour.Thisdivisionoflabourisanecessaryconditionfortheproductionofcommodities,butitdoesnotfollow,conversely,thattheproductionofcommoditiesisanecessaryconditionforthedivisionoflabour.

IntheprimitiveIndiancommunitythereissocialdivisionoflabour,withoutproductionofcommodities.

Or,totakeanexamplenearerhome,ineveryfactorythelabourisdividedaccordingtoasystem,butthisdivisionisnotbroughtaboutbytheoperativesmutuallyexchangingtheirindividualproducts.Onlysuchproductscanbecomecommoditieswithregardtoeachother,asresultfromdifferentkindsoflabour,eachkindbeingcarriedonindependentlyandfortheaccountofprivateindividuals.

Toresume,then:Intheusevalueofeachcommoditythereiscontainedusefullabour,i.e.,productiveactivityofadefinitekindandexercisedwithadefiniteaim.Usevaluescannotconfronteachotherascommodities,unlesstheusefullabourembodied12CAPITALinthemisqualitativelydifferentineachofthem.

Inacommunity,theproduceofwhichingeneraltakestheformofcommodities,i.e.,inacommunityofcommodityproducers,thisqualitativedifferencebetweentheusefulformsoflabourthatarecarriedonindependentlybyindividualproducers,eachontheirownaccount,developsintoacomplexsystem,asocialdivisionoflabour.

Anyhow,whetherthecoatbewornbythetailororbyhiscustomer,ineithercaseitoperatesasausevalue.Noristherelationbetweenthecoatandthelabourthatproduceditalteredbythecircumstancethattailoringmayhavebecomeaspecialtrade,anindependentbranchofthesocialdivisionoflabour.

Whereverthewantofclothingforcedthemtoit,thehumanracemadeclothesforthousandsofyears,withoutasinglemanbecomingatailor.Butcoatsandlinen,likeeveryotherelementofmaterialwealththatisnotthespontaneousproduceofNature,mustinvariablyowetheirexistencetoaspecialproductiveactivity,exercisedwithadefiniteaim,anactivitythatappropriatesparticularnature-givenmaterialstoparticularhumanwants.Sofarthereforeaslabourisacreatorofusevalue,isusefullabour,itisanecessarycondition,independentofallformsofsociety,fortheexistenceofthehumanrace;itisaneternalnature-imposednecessity,withoutwhichtherecanbenomaterialexchangesbetweenmanandNature,andthereforenolife.

Theusevalues,coat,linen,&c.,i.e.,thebodiesofcommodities,arecombinationsoftwoelements–matterandlabour.Ifwetakeawaytheusefullabourexpendeduponthem,amaterialsubstratumisalwaysleft,whichisfurnishedbyNaturewithoutthehelpofman.ThelattercanworkonlyasNaturedoes,thatisbychangingtheformofmatter.13Naymore,inthisworkofchangingtheformheisconstantlyhelpedbynaturalforces.Wesee,then,thatlabourisnottheonlyPART1:COMMODITIESANDMONEY13sourceofmaterialwealth,ofusevaluesproducedbylabour.AsWilliamPettyputsit,labourisitsfatherandtheearthitsmother.

Letusnowpassfromthecommodityconsideredasausevaluetothevalueofcommodities.

Byourassumption,thecoatisworthtwiceasmuchasthelinen.Butthisisamerequantitativedifference,whichforthepresentdoesnotconcernus.Webearinmind,however,thatifthevalueofthecoatisdoublethatof10ydsoflinen,20ydsoflinenmusthavethesamevalueasonecoat.Sofarastheyarevalues,thecoatandthelinenarethingsofalikesubstance,objectiveexpressionsofessentiallyidenticallabour.

继续阅读