第三章
- 书名：
- 英语专业毕业论文写作概论
- 作者：
- 薛爱峰编
- 本章字数：
- 318419
- 更新时间：
- 2023-09-25 12:17:02
26. On the Romanticism and Realism of Alice in Wonderland
论《爱丽丝梦游仙境》的童话性与现实性
27. On the Humor of Oliver Twist
论《雾都孤儿》的幽默艺术
28. The Free Will and Rebellious Spirit in Paradise Lost
《失乐园》中的自由意志和反叛精神
29. On the Development of Shylocks Character
论夏洛克的性格发展
30. Burns View on Love and Friendship
论彭斯的爱情友谊观
31. The Reflection of Art and Life in Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode on a Nightingale
《希腊古瓮颂》与《夜莺颂》中艺术与生活的对照
32. The Womanism in The Color Purple
《紫色》中的妇女主义
33. A Comprehension of MaleCentered Literature Through A Dolls House
从《玩偶之家》解读男性中心的文学
34. On the Ideological Content in Bacons Essays
论培根散文的思想性
35. A Sad Melody Mocking the Love of God—Analysis of the Figures in Thorn Bird
一曲嘲弄上帝爱情的悲歌——论《荆棘鸟》中人物分析
36. Love Reflected by Individual Character—View of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice
由个性反映出爱——《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观
37. On Techniques in Mark Twains Satiric Works
论马克·吐温讽刺小说中的技巧
38. Forest Gumps Language Characteristics in Forest Gump
《阿甘正传》中阿甘的语言特色
39. The Impact of Social Background on Scarlets Marriage
社会背景对斯佳丽婚姻的影响
40. On Conrads Narrative Technique—From Nostromo
从“Nostromo”看康拉德的叙事技巧
41. The Orientation of Nonfiction in Contemporary English Literature
英语记实文学在当代文学中的定位
42. On the Classic Standpoint of Love of Jane Austin from Emma
从《爱玛》看简·奥斯丁的古典主义爱情观
43. The Exploration on Womens Status in Marriage from To the Lighthouse
从《到灯塔去》探索婚后女性的地位
44. The Comparison of Attitudes Towards Marriage Between Ashley and Butler in Gone with the Wind
《飘》中白瑞德和阿希礼的婚姻观比较
45. An Analysis of the Theme in For Whom the Bell Tolls
《战地钟声》的主题研究
46. The Comparison of Individualism Between Moby Dick and The Old Man and the Sea
《白鲸》和《老人与海》中的个人主义比较
47. An Analysis of the Personality of Holden in Catcher in the Rye
《麦田里的守望者》中主人公霍顿的性格分析
48. Analysis of the Psychology of the Catcher in the Rye
《麦田的守望者》人物的心理分析
49. An Analysis of Wordsworths Contradictory Conception of Nature
华兹华斯自然观中的矛盾分析
50. Cummings—Unusual Talent in American Poetry World and His Visual Poetry
美国诗坛怪才康明思和他的视觉诗
51. On Dual Nature of Heathcliffs Personality in Wuthering Heights
《呼啸山庄》中希克厉性格的双重性分析
52. The Comparison of the Use of Satire Between Swift and Luxun
斯威夫特与鲁迅讽刺艺术之比较
53. A Comparative Study of English Nature Poems and Chinese Nature Poems
中英自然诗歌对比研究
54. The Aesthetic Interpretation of Ezra Pounds Poetry
庞德诗歌的美学解析
55. The Use of Hemingways Iceberg Theory in The Old Man and the Sea
海明威“冰山原理”在《老人与海》中的运用
56. The Use of Stream of Consciousness in Mrs. Dalloway
论《达洛维夫人》中的意识流运用
57. An Interpretation on the Themes of the Poems Written by Emily Dickenson
艾米莉·狄金森诗歌主题解读
58. An Interpretation of the 18thcentury English Females Choice of Husbands from Jane Austens Novels
从简·奥斯丁作品解读十八世纪英国女性择偶观
59. On Female Characters and Symbol Environment in The Return of the Native
《还乡》中女性现象及其环境象征意义
60. On Male Hero in Sons and Lovers
论《儿子与情人》中的男性形象
61. A Critical Study of William Faulkners A Rose for Emily: Its Narrative Techniques and Structure
福克纳《献给艾米丽的一朵玫瑰》的叙事技巧与结构
62. A Comparative Study of Empathy in English and Chinese Poetry
英汉诗歌里的移情比较研究
63. The Modern American Society and The Death of the Salesman
《推销员之死》与现代美国社会
64. A Comparative Analysis of Sentence Structures in English and Chinese Poetry
英汉诗歌句子结构比较分析
65. A Comparison of the Value of Love Between Baoyu Daiyu and Jane Rochester
宝黛爱情与简·爱罗彻特爱情观之比较
文化类：
1. On the Differences Between Chinese and Westerners in NonLanguage Communication
谈中国人和英美人非语言交际的差异
2. On the Contribution of the American Blacks During American Civil War
美国黑人在美国内战中的贡献
3. On the Role Played by the American Blacks in the History of America
美国黑人在美国历史上的贡献
4. On American Black English
论美国黑人英语
5. On the Differences of the Marriage Concept Between Chinese and American
论中美婚姻观念的差异
6. On the Cultural Differences Between Chinese and Western Marriage
中西婚姻文化差异
7. A Contrastive Analysis of Table Manners and Culture Between China and Western Countries
中西方国家的餐桌礼仪与文化的对比分析
8. Womens Movement in 1960s in America
美国六十年代的妇女运动
9. Campus Catchwords and the Difference of Thinking Modes Between Chinese and Foreign Students
从校园流行语看中外学生思维方式的差异
10. On the Difference in the Cultural Fondness of SinoAmerica
论中美文化的喜好差异
11. A Comparison on the Cultural Differences in Appellation Between Chinese and English
汉英称谓系统的文化对比
12. On Childrens Education Between China and America
对中美儿童教育的思考
13. Strategies and Impact on Education from Chinas Entry into WTO
WTO 对中国教育的影响及对策
14. The Cultural Influence on English Expressions and Word Choices
文化对英语表达和词汇的影响
15. The Regional Differences Between Chinese and Western Culture
中西文化差异之地域文化差异
16. Chicago As a Mirror of American Social Problems
电影《芝加哥》所透析出的美国社会问题
17. A Contrastive Study of Animal Cultural Implication Between Chinese and English
英汉语动物文化含义比较
18. On the Development of English New Words
英语新词的发展
19. On the Usage of English Abbreviations on the Internet
谈网络英语中的缩略语
20. The Cultural Differences Between Chinese and Western Food
试论中西餐饮文化差异
21. On Ambitiousness in Communication in English
论英语交际中的语用歧义
22. On Influence of Cultural Differences in Understanding English and Chinese Advertisements
论文化差异对解读英汉广告的影响
23. On Changes of Business Etiquettes in CrossCultural Communication
论跨文化交际中商务礼仪的变迁
24. On Language Communication Skills in Business Negotiation
论商务谈判中语言沟通技巧
25. On Comprehension and Usage of Euphemism in Business Negotiation
论商务谈判中委婉语的理解和运用
26. On Application of Nonverbal Means in Communication
论非语言形式在交际中的运用
27. Nonequivalence Between Chinese and English Idioms and Intercultural Differences
英汉习语的不等值现象与跨文化差异
28. The Influences of ChineseBritish Cultural Differences on International Business Protocol
中英文化差异对国际商务礼仪的影响
29. Color Words and Chinese and Western Cultural Differences
颜色词与中西文化的差异
30. Influence of Pragmatism on American Ideas of Values
实用主义对美国人价值观的影响
31. Sinowestern Cultural Shock and the English Study
中西文化冲突与英语学习
32. On the Comparisons of SinoAmerican Family Education
中美家庭教育的比较
33. Influence of Puritanism on American Ideas of Values
清教对美国人价值观的影响
34. On the Comparison of Chinese and English Expressions on Politeness
中英礼貌用语比较
35. The Influence of SinoBritish Cultures on Metaphors
论中英文化对隐语的影响
36. A Contrastive Study on Chinese and English Exclamatory Words
汉英感叹词对比研究
37. On Politeness Norms and Mistakes in Interactive Communication of Spoken English
英汉口语中互动性交际的礼貌规范与失误
38. On SinoBritish Cultural Perceptions from Dianas Death
从戴安娜之死说中英文化观念差异
39. On SinoWestern Cultural Differences from Numerical Idioms
从数字习语看中西文化差异
40. On Cultural Differences from Chinese and Western Mythologies
从中西神话看文化差异
41. An Analysis on the Development of American Newspaper Industry and Freedom of the Press
分析美国报业发展与新闻自由
42. American Movies and American Characteristics
美国电影与美国民族特性
43. Cultural Difference in the Traditional Chinese and Western Festivals
传统节日映照出的中西文化差异
44. The Influence of American Culture on the Language of Its Movies
美国文化对其电影的影响
45. On the Embodiment of Cultural Specifications of Western Cartoon Movies
论西方卡通片所体现的文化特质
46. Perspectives of SinoAmerican Regional Cultural Differences Through Western Development and Westward Movement
从西部开发看中美地域文化之差异
47. Impact of SinoAmerican Family Education Patterns on Thinking Development
论中美家庭教育模式对儿童思维发展的影响
48. Advantages and Disadvantages of American Education System from American Juvenile Delinquency
从美国青年犯罪的分析论美国教育体制的优劣
49. Impact of Game Theory on the U.S. Economic Conductions
论“博奕论”对美国经济的影响
50. Theoretical Bases of U.S. Constitution and Its Relevance to European Political Thoughts
论美国宪法的理论基础及与相关西方政治思潮的联系
51. On Social and Cultural Origins of Naturalism in the History of American Literature
论美国文学中的自然主义产生的社会文化根源
52. Impact of Globalization on CrossCultural Exchange
论全球化对跨文化交流的影响
53. Impact of Roosevelts New Deal on American Economy During and After the Great Depression
分析罗斯福总统的“新政”对大萧条期间及之后对美国经济的影响
54. A Brief Analysis on the Philosophical Bases of Martin Luther Kings Human Rights
马丁·路德·金民权思想中的哲学基础分析
55. Religions Significant Status in Modern American Society
宗教在现代美国社会中的重要地位
56. Process and Strategies of Crosscultural Negotiation
跨文化谈判的过程和技巧
57. Multicultural Conflicts and Combination in Crosscultural Management
跨文化管理中多元文化的冲突和融合
58. To Explore the Cultural Difference Through Advertisement Originality
从广告创意看中西文化观念的差异
59. To Explore the Cultural Difference Through Business English Translation
从商务英语翻译看英汉文化差异
60. On the Oriental Education Thoughts Under the Influence of Western Culture
西方文化对东方教育思维的影响
61. Sun Zis Art of War and Its Influences over the World
《孙子兵法》在世界上的影响
教学法类：
1. Various Factors Reducing the Efficiency of English Learning
论影响英语学习成效的各种因素
2. The Influence of Chinese Cultural Circumstances on English Learning
汉语环境对英语学习的影响
3. On the Initiative of English Learners
论英语学习者的主动性
4. Strategies for Promoting Interactive English Teaching
论英语教学如何走进交际互动课堂
5. Body Language in English Teaching
体态语在英语教学中的运用
6. NonVerbal Behaviors for Activating Students in English Classes
英语课堂中激活学生的非语言行为
7. On Interesting English Teaching
论英语兴趣教学
8. Comments on the Words Used in English Teaching
论英语教学用语
9. On the Excessive Transition in the English Learning of Chinese Students
论中国学生英语学习中的过度迁移
10. On Application of Activitiesbased Approach in English Teaching
活动教学法在英语教学中的应用
11. On the Relationship Between English Study and Gender Differences
论英语学习与性别差异
12. On the Design of Multiplechoice Questions in Reading Comprehension
论阅读理解中多项选择题的设计
13. On the Culture Penetration in English Teaching in Senior Middle School
谈高中英语教学中的文化渗透
14. Relationship Between Teaching and Learning During the English Enlightenment Education
启蒙英语教育中的教与学
15. English Teaching Orientation in the Background of the New Curriculum
新课程背景下英语教学的转向
16. On the Rationality of Selecting English Textbooks
英语教材选用的合理性研究
17. The Advantage and Disadvantage of Bilingual Teaching
双语教学的利与弊
18. The Goal of English Teaching in Senior Middle School
高中英语教学目标初探
19. New Trends of Writing Teaching in English
写作教学的新趋势
20. On How to Construct Interpersonal Environment in Class
论课堂人际环境的构建
21. On TPR in the Primary English Classroom
小学英语课堂反应法探索
22. Pause Phenomenon in EFL Learners
英语初学习者的停顿现象
23. Some Fresh Thoughts on English Teaching in Classroom
英语课堂教学的新思考
24. Application of Games in Middle School English Teaching
游戏在中学英语教学中的运用
25. On Presenting New Teaching Materials of Junior English
论中学英语教学材料的呈现
26. Function of Translation in English Teaching
翻译在英语教学中的地位
27. On the Efficient Ways to Improve Listening Comprehension in English
论提高英语听力的几种有效方法
28. The Effect of Positive Emotional Factors in English Teaching
英语教学中学生情感态度的培养
29. The Relationship Between the Psychological Characteristic of Middle School Student and English Study
中学生心理特征与英语学习的关系
30. On the Application of Storytelling Technique in English Teaching
英语故事教学法研究
31. On the Importance of Oral English in English Teaching
口语在英语教学中的重要性
32. On the Influence of SLA on English Teaching in China
第二语言习得对中国英语教学的影响
33. On the Application of the Communicative Approach from English and Chinese Writing
从中英学生写作看英语交际教学法的应用
34. On the Stimulation and Cultivation of Motivation in English Study
英语学习动机的激发与培养
35. The Effect of Nonintellect in English Teaching
非智力因素在英语教学中的影响
36. Basic Problems of English Listening Training and the Effect on the Middle School Students
中学基础英语听力训练问题以及对学生的影响
37. Pragmatic Competence and Oral English Teaching
语用能力的培养与英语口语教学
38. Analysis of the Factors upon SLA
影响第二语言习得的因素分析
39. The Advantages and Disadvantages of SinoAmerican Secondary School Education
中美中学教育利弊分析
40. The Significance of Context in Teaching Listening
语境在听力教学中的意义
41. A Brief Study on Register and English Learning
论语域与英语学习
42. Transfer of the Mother Tongue in English Teaching
英语教学中母语的迁移作用
43. Cultural Difference and Its Influence on Second Language Learning
文化差异对第二语言学习的影响
44. Application of NonVerbal Communication in Language Teaching
非语言交际手段在语言教学中的运用
45. Problems of and Strategies for English Teaching Through Multimedia Technology
多媒体英语教学所面临的问题与对策
46. On the Importance of Introducing Culture in Secondary School English Teaching
论中学英语教学中文化导入的重要性
47. Effective Ways of Improving Preschool Childrens Spoken English
儿童英语口语教学有效方法
48. On Improving Middle School Students English Reading Comprehension
谈中学生英语阅读理解能力的培养
49. The Application of Communicative Approach in Oral English Teaching
交际法在英语口语教学中的运用
50. Techniques of Listening in English Learning
论英语学习中听力的技巧
51. Application of Multimedia Technology in Middle School English Teaching
多媒体在中学英语教学中的应用
52. Influence of Cultural Differences on English Reading Comprehension
文化差异对阅读理解的影响
53. On the Motivation of Male Students Interests of English Learning
论男生的英语学习兴趣的激发
54. Strategies for Removing the Obstacles in English Listening
英语听力常见障碍应付策略
55. Effective Reading of English Newspapers and Magazines
有效阅读英语报刊和杂志
56. Importance and Feasibility of Improving Students Communicative Competence
提高学生交际能力的重要性和可行性
57. A Study on the Directspelling Method
直接拼写法研究
58. Teaching Grammar Within a Communicative Framework
用交际法教语法
翻译类：
1. Translation of the Guide Words in Tourism English
论导游词在旅游英语中的翻译
2. Language Characteristics and Skills for an English Tour Guide
英语导游翻译的语言艺术与技巧
3. Skills and the Translation of Puns in English Advertisement
英语广告中双关语的运用技巧及翻译
4. The Application of Figures of Speech in English Advertisement and Its Translation
修辞在英语广告中的运用及其翻译
5. Translation Technique on The Complete Sherlock Novels
谈《福尔摩斯探案集》的翻译技巧
6. A Comparative Study of Word Order in English and Chinese Coordinate Constructions and Their Translations
英汉并列结构的语序对比与翻译
7. On the Phenomena of Negative Transference in Translation
论翻译中的负迁移现象
8. Contextual Restriction in Translation
语境对翻译的限制
9. Amplification and Omission in Translation
翻译中的信息增减
10. Three Techniques in EnglishChinese Alternating Translation
中英互译中的三个技巧
11. Translation and Businessoriented Terms
经贸术语及其翻译
12. Transformational Technique of Parts of Speech in Translation
翻译中词性转换的技巧
13. Application of Absolute Construction in Interpretation
独立主格在口译中的运用
14. Effect on Translation from Different EnglishChinese Modes of Thinking
中英思维方式的差异对翻译的影响
15. On Ways of Breaking Cultural Barriers in Translation of Human Names
如何克服人名翻译中的文化障碍
16. On Translation of Chinese Dishes
论中国菜名的英译
17. On Aesthetic Association and Translation of Commodities Names
论审美联想与商品名的翻译
18. Cultural Gap and Mistranslation
英汉文化差异与误译
19. Cultural Traps of Translation
翻译的文化陷阱
20. On Lexical Translation from EnglishChinese Cultural Differences
从英汉文化差异的角度谈词汇翻译
21. On the Relationship Between Translation and Cultural Background
论翻译与文化背景知识的关系
22. The Influence of Cultural Differences on the Choice of the Visual Angle in Translation
论中西文化的差异对翻译视角选择的影响
23. On Influence of American Culture on Import and Export Commodities
论美国文化对进出口商品翻译的影响
24. On the Status and Role of the Translator in Literary Translation
论文学翻译中译者的地位与作用
25. On the Origin, WordFormation and Translation of English Neologisms
英语新词的产生、构成及翻译
26. On Discourse as the Unit of Translation
谈以语篇为翻译单位
27. A Study on Punctuation and Omission in Simultaneous Interpretation
论同声传译中的断句与省略
28. The Comparison and Translation of “Nine” in Chinese and Western Culture
英汉数字“九”的文化对比与翻译
29. Usage and Translation of Numerals in English Expressions
英语中数量词组中的用法和翻译技巧
30. A Brief Study on the Translation of English News Titles
英语新闻标题翻译初探
31. On Translation Techniques of Loanwords
外来语的翻译
32. A Study of Application and Translation of Idiomatic Usages of English Preposition
英语介词惯用法的运用与翻译
33. Decomposition and Translation of Ambiguous Structures
歧义结构的化解与翻译
34. Function of Discourse in Translation
语篇功能在翻译中的表现
35. Features of Network Language and Its Translation
网络用语的特点及其翻译
36. On Translation and Difference Between Chinese and English Culture
论中英文化差异和翻译
37. On Cultural Gaps and Untranslatability
论文化差异与不可译性
38. Effects of Nonverbal Factors on Interpretation
非语言因素对口译的影响
39. The Application of Functional Approaches in Literary Translation
功能翻译理论在文学翻译中的运用
40. On Translation of Passive Voice of English
英语被动语态的译法初探
41. Distinction and Translation of English Passives Without byphrases
英语中无标记被动结构的识别与翻译
42. Usage and Translation of “and”
英文中的and 的用法与译法
43. Intertranslation of Humor of English and Chinese
英汉的幽默互译
44. On Adaptation and Alienation of Translation
论翻译的归化与异化
45. Evolution of Contemporary American English and Its Translation
当代美语嬗变与翻译
46. The Comparison and Translation of ChineseEnglish Love Poems
中英爱情诗歌特点比较及翻译
47. On Chinese Translation of English Metaphor
英语隐喻的汉译
48. Lexical Translation in Concrete Context
具体语境中语义的翻译
49. EnglishChinese Similes and Their Translation
谈英汉明喻及其翻译
50. On the Characteristics of Business Negotiation Language and Its Translation
商务谈判用语特点及翻译
51. Alternating Translation of English and Chinese Attributives
论英汉互译中定语的翻译
52. The Characteristics of English News and Its Translation
英语新闻特征及其汉译
53. On Political Factors in EnglishChinese Translation
翻译中政治因素的作用
54. Linguistic Characteristics of Business Letter and Its Translation
涉外商务信函的语言特征及其翻译
55. On Comparison of Translation of Idioms in Chinese and English
论惯用语在中英文中的翻译
56. Choice of Correct Words in Translation
翻译中正确词汇的选择
57. Solution to the Difficulties in the Translation of English Idioms
英语成语翻译的难点及其解决方法
58. On the Cultural Connotation of English and Chinese Idioms and Tactics of Dealing with Cultural Differences in Translation of Idioms
英汉习语的文化内涵及翻译中文化差异的处理
59. On Ethical Tradition in English and Chinese Translation
英汉文化习俗翻译研究
60. On the Cultural Difference Between Chinese and English Idioms and Translation Method
论中英语习语中的文化差异和翻译方法
61. On the Characters of English Law Language and Translation
论英语法律语言的特点及翻译
62. The Translation Method of Chinese and English Films Name
中英电影名的翻译方法
63. On Translating English Book Titles into Chinese
谈英语书名汉译
64. On English Translation of Signs and Words in Public Places
公共标识用语的英译探析
65. On the Faithfulness in Chinese Classical Poetry Translation
谈中国古典诗歌英译的“信”
66. Skills for English Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems
古诗翻译的英译技巧
67. On the English Versions of Some of Du Fus Poems
评杜甫诗歌英译
68. Translating the Titles of Chinese Classic Poetry
中国古典诗歌标题英译
69. Translation Strategies and Techniques of Long Sentences in TEM 8
英语专业八级中长句的翻译策略与技巧
70. A Comparative Study of Three Chinese Versions of “Of Studies”
《论学习》三种汉译本比较研究
71. Gu Hongming: A Pioneer of Translating the Chinese Classics into English
汉英翻译的先驱：辜鸿铭
72. Translating the English Plural Nouns into Chinese
英语复数名词汉译
73. The Chinese Version of Jude the Obscure: An Outstanding Example of Artistic Recreation
艺术再创造的范例——《无名的裘德》汉译本
74. A Preliminary Study of Wu Ningkuns Version of The Great Gatsby
巫宁坤译《了不起的盖茨比》初探
语言学类：
1. A Contrastive Study of Directional Verbs in Chinese and English
中英趋向动词的比较研究
2. Semantic Influence on Structure
语义对结构的影响
3. The Impact on Structure Changes by Cognition
认知对结构变化的影响
4. Social Psychological Factors and Their Influence on ELL
社会心理因素及其对语言学习的影响
5. Contrastive Analysis of EnglishChinese Tourism Texts
英汉旅游篇章对比分析
6. On the Nature and Functions of Metaphor
论隐喻的本质与功能
7. Application of Inverted Sentences in English
英语中的倒装
8. A Contrastive Study of the Formation of English and Chinese Antonyms
论英汉反义词的形成
9. A Contrastive Study of Punctuation in Chinese and English
英汉标点符号比较
10. On the Relationship Between Lexical Cohesion and Textual Coherence
词汇的衔接与语篇的连贯
11. Thought Discrepancies Embodied in English and Chinese Languages
思维差异在英汉语言中的体现
12. Influences of Chinese Dialectical Accent over English Pronunciation
汉语方言对英语发音的影响
13. A Contrastive Analysis of EnglishChinese Conversational Implication
英汉会话含义的解析
14. Cultural Divergence and Schema of Reading in Mother Tongue and the Second Language
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系
15. Language Development of PreSchool Children and English Teaching
幼儿言语发展及幼儿英语教学
16. A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Prosodic Features
从英汉对比角度浅析英汉节律特征
17. A Probe into the Characteristics of English Affix System
英语词缀系统的特点
18. A Tentative Study on English Hyperbole
英语夸张修辞
19. Differences Between AE and BE in Their Growth and Linguistic Features
英英和美英在历史起源和语言学特征上的差异
20. Pragmatic Analysis on the Approximating Quantities with Numbers
数词模糊语的语用分析
21. On Special Usage of English Prepositions
英语介词的另类用法
22. On Fault Use of Words in Law English
论法律英语里的用词失误
23. On Characteristics Usage of Medical English
论医学英语的特点
24. On Compounds Constructions in English
英语复合结构
25. On Ways of Forms of English Customary Usage
英语惯用语形成途径探讨
26. On Hyperbole in English and Chinese
英汉中的正夸张和反夸张手法
27. About Usage of Letter “S” in English
英语中的字母S的用法探讨
28. About Characteristics of English in P.E.
体育英语的特色
29. Kinds, Construction and Other Characteristics of English Color Words
英汉色彩词的种类，结构与其他特点
30. On Skills of Writing an English Business Letter
英语商业信函的写作技巧
31. Characteristics of American Slangs
美国俚语特点初探
32. A Comparative Study of English and Chinese Polite Expressions
英汉礼貌表达比较研究
33. Reflection of Euphemism onto the Psychological Factors of Social Culture
论英语委婉语在社会文化心理因素中的映射
34. On the Aesthetic Value of Alliteration
头韵的审美价值
35. A Probe into the New Words Emerging from English Movies
英语电影中的新词探讨
36. Gender Differences in English Oral Speech
英语言语中的性别差异
37. A Brief Analysis of the Characteristics of Political Slang in American English
论美国英语中政治俚语的特点
38. The Application of Personification in Advertising
广告英语中拟人的应用
39. Language Characteristics of English Business Contracts
商务合同的语言特点
40. Acquisition of Function Words in English Learning
谈英语学习中虚词的掌握
41. English Words and Expressions Belittling the Female
英语女性歧视化用词和表达法研究
42. On the Abbreviations of Business English
论商务英语的缩略语
43. The Analysis of the Advertisers Goal in English Advertisement
英语广告中广告人的目标分析
44. On Pragmatic Functions of Fuzzy Language in Business English
模糊语言在商务英语中的语用功能
45. Informal Discussion on the EnglishChinese Vocabularys Social Cultural Intension
英汉词汇的社会内涵漫谈
46. Pragmatic Functions of Irony
反语的语用功能
47. Parallelism and Contrast of Shakespeares Dramatic Language
莎士比亚戏剧的排比与对照用语
48. Sexism as Reflected in the Chinese and English Languages
英汉语中的性别歧视
49. Stylistic Features of News Reporting
英语新闻报道的文体风格
50. On Simplification of English Sentences
谈英语句子的简化
51. Studies in English Sentences of Implied Condition
英语的含蓄条件句
第三章毕业论文的前期准备
第三章毕业论文的前期准备
第一节毕业论文的资料准备
一、搜集查找资料
通过探索性和浏览性的查阅资料，大家选择和确定了毕业论文的选题。正如前面论述过的，对资料的把控可以更好地帮助确定题目。也就是说，研究初始阶段，阅读文献的目的是寻找研究领域，或者是为了确定自己的课题有无研究价值，进而确定本研究与以往研究的联系。一旦确立了研究课题，找到了研究焦点，阅读文献的目的就发生了变化。具体来说，确定论题之后，大家就需要仔细研读资料、科学评估资料、认真记录资料，为论文写作打下扎实的基础。
收集资料是科学研究最耗时、最重要的基础性工作，科学研究就是建立在有效占有相应素材基础上的创造性劳动。论文说到底就是个大的议论文，需要有理有据，有说服力，没有足够材料的支撑就好比在做“无米之炊”。
检索和查询有关资料的能力是论文写作成败的一个非常关键的因素。因此，无论是从毕业论文写作的实际需要出发，还是从培养自己的科研能力出发，本科生都必须重视研究过程，认真做好收集资料这项工作。
收集资料要注意资料的新颖度、可信度、典型度和与研究内容的相关度。
1. 资料的类型
一般来说，毕业论文写作需要收集以下几种类型的资料：
① 与论题有关的一般背景知识
比如，要评论某作家某篇作品的主题，研究者往往需要了解和收集该作家生平方面的资料，其中包括该作家所处时代的社会背景情况、所受的哲学思想和文艺思潮的影响、所处的家庭环境、周围的人际关系、有哪些主要作品、被评作品产生的时代背景、作品出版后的社会反应等。
② 与论题相关的理论背景
比如，要研究的论题是“从弗洛伊德精神分析理论看《儿子与情人》”，那研究者就必须通过收集和研读资料对弗洛伊德的精神分析理论有一个基本的了解与把握。
③ 反映本课题研究现状和各家论述（包括研究方法）的资料
此类资料应包括不同研究阶段的代表性论述、不同视角下具有代表性的各家之言和有影响力的专家之言。其具体材料形式是，谁在什么著作（论文）中研究了什么问题，有什么具体的论点。
④ 中文参考资料
英汉语言比较研究、中英文化比较研究以及英汉互译方面的论文少不了要参考中文资料。除此之外，其他选题也常常需要从汉语出版物中收集有用的信息。
2. 资料的种类
根据载体形式的不同，文献资料可以分为纸质文献资料、声像文献资料和电子文献资料三大类。
第一类，纸质文献资料有：
① 百科全书（encyclopedias）
它是人类现有知识的安排、整理和概要记述。它可以回答五个w和一个h的问题，尤其适合回答有关定义、概念、论题、历史沿革、当前状况和关于人物、事件的综合性问题，因此百科全书是获得背景知识信息和背景理论信息的理想载体。再者，由于百科全书的规模大，又是由权威人士集体编纂的，因此所载信息全面、系统、可靠，有很高的参考价值。
英语专业常用的专门百科全书有：
International Encyclopedia of the Social Science 《国际社会学百科全书》
Encyclopedia of Educatioan 《教育百科全书》
Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century 《20世纪世界文学百科全书》
Cassells Encyclopedia of World Literature 《卡西尔世界文学百科全书》
Encyclopedia of World Arts 《世界艺术百科全书》
Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics 《普林斯顿诗歌与诗学百科全书》
The New Encyclopedia Britannica 《新不列颠百科全书》
Encyclopedia American 《美国百科全书》
② 英语词典（dictionaries）
词典的首要功能是给学术论文作者提供术语的定义。此外，我们可以利用教学词典来研究英语教学问题，英汉和汉英词典来进行英汉语的比较研究，发音词典、成语词典、新词词典、同义词词典等各种专科语音词典来研究相应的语言问题。
③ 专著（monographs）
公开出版的学术专著，不管是纯理论性质的，还是偏实际应用型的，其参考价值都是相当高的，所以专著应该是学术论文写作最重要的参考文献和信息来源。
④ 教科书（textbooks）
高等学校基础理论课和专业理论课所用的教科书，一般来说都是编著者关于本学科知识领域的系统性概括，所涉及的理论具有前沿性，所使用的概念和术语具有广泛的认同性。
⑤ 期刊（periodicals）
期刊，尤其是学术性期刊，是学术通讯系统中最主要的知识和信息源。因定期集中发表论文、调查报告、统计报告等研究成果，学术性期刊的最大特征就是及时性和创新性。查找文献时往往先从期刊文献开始，由此获得更多的书目信息。因此，期刊通常是学术论文写作中获得研究资料的重要来源。
下面给大家推荐一些国内和国外英语专业类的期刊：
进口期刊
LanguageApplied Linguistics
English Teaching Forum
Studies in Second Language Acquisition
American SpeechLinguistic Studies
ELT JournalLanguage Learning
TESOL JournalTESOL Quarterly
（续表）
国内期刊
中国翻译现代外语
中国科技翻译外语教学
上海科技翻译解放军外国语大学学报
中国外语外语学刊
中国英语教学山东外语教学
当代语言学四川外国语学院学报
外语教学与研究外语与外语教学
外语界外国语言文学
外国语（上海外国语大学学报）外国文学评论
外国文学研究国外文学
外国文学外国文学研究
当代外国文学外语研究语言教学与研究外语教学理论与实践
还有国内外知名高校的学报（主要是指社会科学版）都刊登一些英语语言、英美文学、英美文化和翻译方面的质量上乘的学术文章，这些文献都应纳入文献检索的重点范围。
⑥ 学术会议论文集（proceedings）
国际或国内学术会议上宣读过或未能宣读的论文常以论文集的形式印发或作为专著正式出版，也可以作为期刊的专号或附刊出版。
⑦ 报纸（newspapers）
从报纸中可以学到政治、经济、外交以及文化等方面的知识，还可以从它的书评、影评、剧评专栏中学到文艺理论。报纸的语言生动、活泼，语言的最新变化也往往最早体现在报刊之中。因此，可以利用英语报纸上的实际语言要素进行英语语言研究，如英语语言的变化、英语新词新义研究、新闻英语的语言特征、广告英语的语言特征等。
第二类，声像资料：
所谓声像资料是指与视、听有关的声像出版物。大致可以分为三大类，一是视觉资料，如幻灯片；二是听觉资料，如唱片、录音磁带、激光唱片等；三是视听资料，如电影片、录像磁带、激光视盘（VCD）、数字激光视盘（DVD）等。
声像资料的最大优点是直接而形象、生动而真实。研究文学艺术、人物生平、历史发展、语言等方面的课题往往有必要索查和使用声像资料。
第三类，电子文献资料：
随着互联网技术的发展和普及，研究活动在最近几年内发生了显著变化，互联网在信息获取和信息传递方面所具有的重要作用也不断为人们所认识。研究者需要以新的形式、在新的地方寻找信息进行研究，所以，大家必须学会如何利用新技术，并使其充分发挥力量。
在网络中，尤其是专业的数据库中搜索电子文献资源已经成为最常用的学术文献收集途径。所谓数据库，即存贮和组织在磁、光介质（磁带、磁盘、光盘等）上利用计算机从多方面提供或产出新数据的数据文件的集合。市面上出售的数据库磁盘、光盘大部分属于全文数据库；只提供文献线索的参考数据库通常是要到图书馆去查询的。我们平时说的网上查询就是指通过在线系统进行传递、处理或查阅。
这里介绍几种常用的电子文献数据库：
① 引文索引数据库
进行科研活动，必须要借鉴前人和同时代人的劳动成果，在撰写学术论文时具体表现为经常引用他人著述的观点、方法和结论。将他人著述作为参考文献，而此人著述又被其他人引用，这种相互引证关系，体现了科学交流活动，形成了有不同内在主题关系的“引文网”。如将引文本身作为检索词，标引所有引用过某一引文的文献，就会构成独特的引文索引。通过“科学引文索引数据库”的检索与查询，可以查找到引用过某篇论文的全部文献，以及该论文的引文来源，揭示出某一专题领域的起源、修正、提高、扩展的过程，以及最新的研究成果，从一个重要侧面就能揭示学科研究与发展的走向。常用的引文索引数据库有以下两个：
社会科学引文索引（Social Sciences Citation Index,简称SSCI），是国际性的著名综合性检索工具。其所收录的文献均为选自各学科领域的核心期刊。数据库不仅有来源索引，同时还有引文索引，即不仅对所选中的来源文献进行索引，同时还对这些来源文献所涉及参考文献（引文）进行索引。截止到2009年，SSCI收录报道并标引了2684种社会科学期刊，内容覆盖55个领域。
中文社会科学引文索引（Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index，简称CSSCI），是由南京大学中国社会科学研究领域评价中心所开发研制的数据库，用来检索中文社会科学领域的论文收录和文献被引用情况。CSSCI采取定量与定性评价相结合的方法，从全国2700余种中文人文社会科学学术性期刊中，精选出600余种学术性强、编辑规范的期刊作为来源期刊。该项目成果填补了我国社会科学引文索引的空白，达到了国内先进水平。
② 期刊全文数据库
常用的期刊全文数据库有以下几个：
中国期刊全文数据库（CNKI），简称知网，是目前世界上最大的连续动态更新的中国期刊全文数据库。收录1994年至今约7000余种期刊全文，其中2410种可以回溯到1997年，并对其中部分重要刊物回溯至创刊时期。数据库每日更新。
维普中文科技期刊数据库。这个数据库收录了1989年至今的各类科技期刊近万种，各类学术论文数千万条，其中，绝大多数有全文。学科内容涉及自然科学、工程技术、农业科学、医药卫生等诸多领域。它与中国期刊全文数据库的重复率约为70%。
万方数据库。这个数据库是由万方数据公司开发的，涵盖期刊、论文、会议纪要、学术会议论文、学术成果的大型网络数据库；是和中国知网齐名的中国专业的学术数据库。万方期刊集纳了工、理、医、农、人文五大类、70多个类目，共7600种科技类期刊全文。
超星期刊数据库（qikan.chaoxing.com）。超星期刊目前有中外文期刊8.8万种，全文收录中文期刊6500种（核心期刊超过1300种），不仅提供传统的PDF版式文件下载，而且创新性地实现了流式媒体的全文直接阅读，能够实现不同终端的自适应阅读，同时也可实现基于社交空间传播分享。
③ 学位论文数据库
除了上面提到这几个数据库可以检索到学位论文外，还有两个数据库需要给大家推荐：
中国优秀博士/硕士学位论文全文数据库。这个数据库收录了1999年以来全国600多家培养单位的硕士、博士论文全文，涉及自然科学、社会科学、工程技术的所有学科领域。数据库每日更新。
ProQuest学位论文全文数据库（国内外综合类博士/硕士论文全文）。该数据库提供全世界1000余所大学和科研机构（以欧美国家为主）的部分博士、硕士论文的全文，涉及理、工、文、医、农各个学科领域，数据最长可追溯到1926年，目前有论文十几万篇。数据库每年更新。
④ 会议论文数据库
该数据库收录我国2000年以来国家2级以上学会、协会、高等院校、科研院所、学术机构等单位主办会议的论文全文，涉及理、工、农、医、人文社会科学等所有学科领域。
⑤ 报纸全文数据库
“中国重要报纸全文数据库”是以重要报纸刊载的学术性、资料性文献为收录对象的连续动态更新的数据库，目前已累积文献210万篇。知识来源于2000年以来国内公开发行的400多种重要报纸，每年精选80万篇文献。覆盖范围涉及文化、艺术、体育及各界人物、政治、军事、法律、经济、社会与教育、科学技术等，分为六大专辑，36个专题数据库。
⑥ 电子图书
著名的电子图书数据库有三项：
超星数字图书馆。超星数字图书馆设有文学、历史、法律、军事、经济、科学、医药、工程、建筑等几十个专题。目前拥有数字图书10万多种，并在以每年数百种的速度增加。任何人通过互联网都可以免费在线阅读超星数字图书馆的图书资源。
书生之家数字图书馆。该图书馆主要提供1999年以来中国内地出版的新书的全文电子版，图书内容涉及社会科学、人文科学、自然科学和工程技术等所有类别。
中国年鉴全文数据库。该数据库的内容覆盖基本国情、地理历史、政治、军事、外交、经济、法律、科学技术、文化体育事业、教育、社会生活、医疗卫生、人物、统计资料、法律法规等各个领域。数据库收录中国国内的中央、地方、行业和企业等各类年鉴的全文文献，数据最早可以回溯到1912年。
除了这些常用的数据库，大家还要充分利用网络检索，可直接从已知的网址上查找所需图书馆目录和数据库目录，也可用网上搜索引擎，直接去搜索相关网址、网页或者资料目录。最为常用的搜索引擎大致有百度baidu、谷歌google、天网maze（前身为北大天网）、搜狐的搜狗sogou、Alta Vista、北大方正的方正搜书网、雅虎yahoo、腾讯的搜搜soso、中搜zhongsou等。研究者可以利用这些网络资源搜集与论题相关的资料信息，既快捷方便，又充分翔实。在搜索的过程中，大家需要不断积累关键词的选择技巧——根据搜索结果，不断修正自己的关键词选择，可以扩大或缩小关键词，也可以使用同义词、反义词等，以找到更加适合课题的参考资料。
下面给大家推荐一些常用的在线图书馆及外语与外语教学类网址：
北京大学图书馆http://www.lib.pku.edu.cn
北京外国语大学图书馆http://202.204.132.205/；http://www.bfsu.edu.cn/enet/lib/tsg.htm
复旦大学图书馆http://www.library.fudan.edu.cn
广东外语外贸大学图书馆http://lib.gdufs.edu.cn/;http://202.116.197.6/gplib.htm
南京大学图书馆http://www.njulib.cn;http://202.119.47.3
清华大学图书馆http://www.lib.tsinghua.edu.cn
北京师范大学图书馆http://www.lib.bnu.edu.cn
厦门大学图书馆http://210.34.4.20
中国国家图书馆中国国家数字图书馆http://www.nlc.gov.cn
中国期刊网http://www.chinaqking.com
中国知网(CNKI)http://www.cnki.net
中国在线图书馆http://netsupport.tsinghua.edu.cn/navigation/navindex.Htm
中国基础教育网http://www.benet.com.cn.
中国英语教师网http://www.englishteachers.com.cn
21世纪英语教学网http://21thcentury.chinadaily.com.cn
北方教育网http://www.northedic.com.cn
上海外语教育出版社http://www.sflep.com.cn
外语教学与研究出版社http://www.fltrp.com.cn
中国对外翻译出版公司http://www.ctpc.com.cn
清华大学出版社http://www.tup.tsinghua.edu.cn
北京大学出版社http://www.cbs.pku.edu.cn
高等教育出版社http://www.hep.com.cn
二、挑选阅读资料
一般来说，通过以下几种方法，我们可以较为有效地阅读资料：
1. 先读综合性资料，后读专题性资料
首先从收集到的资料中挑选相关领域的综合性资料，即他人所写的文献综述，比如期刊上发表的研究进展、文献述评等。在硕士、博士学位论文中也有专门的文献综述的章节。认真阅读这些内容，就可以对论文涉及的研究领域有比较全面的了解，有利于判断评价各种专题性资料的价值，同时也能让研究者避免“只见树木，不见森林”。
2. 先读摘要，后读全文
论文摘要是对研究内容的精辟概括，一般学术性文章都有摘要。首先阅读摘要既可以节省时间，又可以很快知道其文章内容是否符合研究需要。如符合需要就读下去，如不符合或者不十分需要的，可以舍弃或留作参考之用，这样就大大提高了阅读资料的效率。
3. 先读新资料，后读旧资料
与所写的论文相关的资料必定很多，收集到的资料也肯定有新旧之别。一般来说，近期资料往往包含陈旧资料的内容，或者是有所修改和补充，同时又代表研究的最新状态和最高水平。所以，阅读的重点应该是以近期的新资料为主，早期资料应在近期资料中学者们普遍引用的经典资料为主。而对于与论文有关的数据、事实则没有新旧之分，应视需要而定。
4. 先泛读，后精读
对所有的资料可以先粗略地浏览一遍，对资料有个大致的了解，并将其分为重要资料和次要资料。泛读之后，选出的重要资料，还要进行精读。研读文献中与自己研究课题相关的部分，关联度越高，阅读要越仔细。通过仔细阅读，弄清它的内容实质、论证的方式方法，对其中的重要结论、精辟论述更是要深入、反复阅读。在精读过程中要勤于思考、善于发现问题、提出质疑，这样才能在前人研究的基础上开展进一步的研究。
三、鉴别评价资料
接下来大家要做的就要对收集的资料作出评价了，不是所有的资料都同等有用和同等重要。它们在学术质量、论述要点和细节的准确性方面各有千秋。评价鉴别资料就是要对收集到的资料进行认识和分析，是一个去伪存真、去粗取精的过程。美国的MLA（Modern Language Association），即美国现代语言协会在1999年第五版《MLA科研论文写作规范》中专门从资料的权威性、准确性和时效性几个方面为研究者提供了鉴别资料的标准。
1. 权威性
在参考某一种资料的时候，要从作者、期刊名、出版社和网站的知名程度等来判断其权威性，作者、期刊、出版社和网站越知名，该参考资料就越权威、越可信。
具体来说，比如，期刊文章，除了关注作者、期刊知名度、主办单位等外，大家还要特别关注期刊是否是学术期刊。如果参考资料是学术文献，例如来自于学术出版社或教育机构的资料，那么应该是可靠的，因为它在出版前可能已经被客观地评价过了。但如果是流行杂志，就需要谨慎一些，确保这个参考资料是最好的。下表给出一些辨别出版物是学术性的还是通俗性的，是期刊还是杂志的方法。
学术文章通俗文章
面向有大学文化程度的读者面向普通读者
提供参考资料的来源通常在没有提及信息
来源的情况下使用信息
使用学术性的语言使用通俗的语言
经常使用图表和图形可能包含很多图片
再比如，网络文献资料，大家应该了解一些评价互联网信息的方法：
关注URL中是否有“～”这种符号，它通常意味着信息来自于某人的个人网站。
关注URL是否是以“edu”等结尾的，不同的域名意味着网站的类型，弄清所访问的网站的类型可以帮助大家做出相关判断。以下是一些常用的域名：
comA commercial organization
eduAn educational institution
govA nonmilitary government agency or department
milThe military
netA network administrator
orgA nonprofit organization (not educational or governmental)
关注网站的创见日期或最后刷新日期。如果有些网站已经过时，即使它出现在搜索引擎的命中结果列表中，也应该及早将其排除在外。
如果网站为某个组织、社团或俱乐部所有，应该在采用他们发布到网上的信息之前尽可能多了解一些他们的情况。关注他们的使命、董事会成员及其他内容，这些都可以表明他们的特殊倾向和偏好。
2. 准确性
要证明所得文献资料是否准确可靠，先要查作品所标示的资料来源。一般文献往往附带参考文献，从参考文献中可以了解到作者知识面及观点是否有某种偏见性，因为作者可能会依据不精确、不全面、不权威的信息撰写某些资料，而这些是可以从参考文献的范围发现一些蛛丝马迹的。其次，大家在评估资料时，要依据自己的阅读经验和专业知识来判断，作者的观点是否客观，是否存在偏见，是否有充分的事实依据来支撑其观点，以此来核查证实材料的准确性。
3. 时效性
文献的出版时间在某种程度上意味着资料的学术观点是否与时俱进。在鉴别书籍资料时，首先要关注其出版日期。有的印刷品在不同时期出版了好几个版次。一般来时，时间越近的研究越代表了最新的研究成果。其次还要注意版本，其中，第几次印刷表示该书没有任何变化，只是又重印了；第几版则说明内容和形式都有变化，引用时需要特别注意。如果论文中要用到它的观点或材料，就要选择其最新的版本。期刊和报纸文章更要特别关注资料的时效性。
信息的类型可以决定其时效性的重要程度。例如，一篇基于调查的文献当然是越新越好，而一篇阐释莎士比亚诗句的文献就不必很新。
收集资料时要务求贪多，最终选取的用来写入论文中的题材却要求精炼。研究者在应用资料时，往往有贪多求全的倾向，恨不得将手边的资料倾其所有全部塞进论文，结果造成臃肿芜杂，精华的内容反而被淹没了。所以，资料的选择与取舍是论文写作不容忽视的一个重要环节。
随着经验的积累，研究者能够凭感觉辨认出不正确或不合适的文献资料。大家在搜索、评价参考资料方面不断吸收经验的过程中，就会开始考虑资料的权威性、时效性、准确性和客观性，并形成一套自己的评价标准来确定资料的价值。搜索的越多，研究能力就会越强，对资料提出的质疑就会越多，手头保留下的资料就会越有价值。
四、研究记录资料
经过图书馆借阅、查询，网上下载，买书买资料等准备后，学生手边就会拥有大量的资料。如何利用这些资料，使其最大限度为撰写论文服务，就是我们面临的另一大问题。
论文资料的利用直接关系到毕业论文质量的高低，是一个繁杂沉重并至关重要的工作。只有论文资料利用得当，论文才会有保证，否则，就会导致论文质量不高和抄袭剽窃的结果。把资料源可供的资料变成论文中的资料，要经历几个环节：记录资料、汇总资料、分拣资料、资料评价、形成题材。
记录资料的方法有两种：一是文摘卡，二是计算机文件。
不管是文摘卡还是计算机文件，大家一定要注意资料的管理，方便后期的汇总和分拣工作。
如何管理资料呢？一方面，要注意分门别类地进行保存。检索收集到的各种文献资料根据各自的具体内容或者研究方法进行分类，分门别类地保存，使得在查找资料时一目了然。另一方面，要注意保存资料的来源，这样可以使得在写作中遇到的分辨不清的问题时，可以重新找到原文进行核对，同时也为论文写作过程中的引用、注释和写好以后注明参考文献提供便利。对于期刊论文的来源应该保存的是作者名、题名、期刊名、出版年、期序、所存内容的页码；如果是著作，则应该保存作者名、书名、出版社、出版地、出版时间、版本以及相关内容的页码。
上面提到，记录资料有两种方法：文摘卡和计算机文件。其中，文摘卡记录的内容可以采用四种形式，即引语式、转述式、摘要式和评论式。
1. 引语式文摘卡
引语式文摘卡就是原封不动地把文献资料中有用的句子或段落抄写下来，摘录内容必须保留原文中的拼写、语法、标点等的独特性。
Numan (1993)Definition of taskbased approach
Taskbased approach is “any classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form”.
2. 转述式文摘卡
转述（paraphrase）就是用自己的话换一种说法来叙述原文的内容，并不是“用同义词语替换难词或深奥表达，或改变某些句子结构的简单过程”（冯翠华，2003：32）。好的转述应该是：其意义与原文尽可能接近，其措辞尽可能与原文不同，其词数与原文尽可能相等。它应该达到两个目的：一个目的是表明你对原文彻底理解和吸收，而且能用自己的话叙述；另一个目的是转述文字要和自己论文的文体保持连贯一致。
Chen Jia P437Introduction
The heroine of the novel, Tess DUrvevilles, is a peasant girl who lived in an ear when the peasant system fell apart in England. Her misfortunes and tragedy have a direct bearing on the social change. Thus, the misery of hers and her family not only symbolizes their own tragic fate but also represents the collapse of the rural system at the turn of the two centuries, just as Arnold Kettle, a critic of the 20th century put it, the novel “has the quality of a social document”.
下面是陈嘉写的《英国文学史》中的原文，大家可以对照学习，从而更加了解转述式。
The heroine of Tess of the DUrberrvilles is a peasant girl; her misfortunes and final tragedy are inevitably linked up with the disintegration of the peasantry, which reached its final stage in English at Hardys time. The tragic feature of Tess and of her family is therefore not that of an individual or a family, but is symbolic of the destruction of the English peasantry toward the end of the 19th century, and the novel, according to a 20th century critic Arnold Kettle, “has the quality of a social document”. (陈嘉，1981:57)
3. 摘要式文摘卡
摘要就是对原文的简短缩写。研究者可以把一本书缩短成几页，把一章内容压缩成一页，把一页内容压缩成一段话，把一个段落缩写成一个句子。缩写时只保留原文的大意：记叙文只保留其主要事件，而删去次要事件；非记叙作品只保留其要点，而去掉其枝节。切记不能把原文中没有的内容写进去。做摘要式文摘卡时要记住两点：要用自己的话表达原文内容；要用第三人称写。
摘要式文摘常常用于论文写作，尤其是简述故事和小说，对一部或一篇作品做评论时更是如此。下例就是把小说《苔丝》压缩加工的简要故事梗概，用于论文的引言部分。
Tess of the DUrbervilles Synopsis
The novel is about Tess tragic predicament between her brutal seducer Alec Stoke DUrverville and her husband Angel Clare.
Beautiful Tess Durbeyfield is the daughter of a poor peasant who learn that he may be a descendant of the aristocratic DUrbervilles. Tess is persuaded by her mother to go to the DUrbervilles to claim kindred. Working there as a dairymaid, Tess is seduced by the young master, Alec. She returns home and gives birth to a baby in disgrace. The child dies in infancy. Later, she goes to work on a dairy farm in Talbothays, where she meets Angel Clare, son of a clergyman, and falls in love with him. On their wedding night, after Angels confession of his past relation with a bad woman, Tess tells him of her own story. But while she forgives him readily, he does not forgive her. He leaves her for Brazil. And she has to go home. Then her fathers death and the expulsion of her family from their collage drive her back to Alec.
Before long, Angel, repentant of his unjust treatment to Tess, returns from abroad in the hope of being reconciled to her, but only find her living with Alec. He accuses Tess and leaves her. Seeing that Alecs relation with her has once again prevents her union with Angel, Tess hates Alec and kills him in a fit of despair. After hiding in a forest and spending a few happy days with Angel, she is finally arrested, convinced and hanged.
4. 评论式文摘卡
在对收集的材料进行研究时，可能会产生一些想法。这时，研究者要把这些想法及时记在文摘卡上，它就是对材料的评论。在任何一篇学术论文中都可以发现许多出自评论式文摘卡的内容。
Personal commentOn Grimms family tales
It can be said that Grimms Fairy Tales is a collection of folklores. At the beginning, Brothers Grimm viewed themselves as patriotic folklorists, not as storytellers for children. They began their work at a time when Germany, a messy patchwork of principles, had been overrun by the French under Napoleon. The new rules were intent on suppressing local culture.
这是传统的记笔记或做卡片的方法。合理利用这种方法可以有效的管理自己的文献资料。但这种方法有时，特别是在时间有限的情况下，会用去大量的时间且比较费力，那么研究者还可以用一种更省力的方法——复印，就是将有关的内容复印下来，这可以保持资料的原样，日后用于撰写不会失真走样，也省时。
除了做卡片和复印的方法，随着网络技术的发展，研究者也可以用软盘、计算机等记录资料，这一方法特别适用于网上下载的资料——资料从网上下载后，可以存在软盘或计算机上，需要时经过分析编辑，直接复制或粘贴在论文中，既方便又快捷。
做计算机文件时大家要注意：最好为每一种资料或论文创建一个文件，并科学、合理命名。如果收集的资料不多，可以把所有的资料放在一个文件夹里，需要时调出来使用；如果收集到多种来源的资料，最好为每一种来源的资料创建一个文件夹，方便需要时及时找到。这是其一。其二，为了将来写作方便，建议大家还是把有用的内容摘录出来，打印电子文档，做成文摘卡的形式，方便将来查找。
不管是传统的文摘卡方式还是现代的计算机文件方式，建议大家分拣完毕材料后，将其编上代号，此后在论文的提纲中就可以“对号入座”。
研究者在浩如烟海的文献资料中，搜集查找、挑选阅读、鉴别评价并研究记录资料，为的就是围绕自己的论题，充分合理利用资料，去阐释或论证论文的中心论点，保质保量地完成毕业论文撰写任务。当然，收集的资料越多，准备论文的时间越长，所做的论文就更加细致，研究的广度和深度也就更加理想。
第二节毕业论文的研究方法
毕业论文的前期准备，研究者除了收集整理文献资料外，还要充分了解学术论文的研究方法，从而确定自己论文的研究方法。
一、研究方法的概念
研究方法是指在研究中发现新现象、新事物，或者提出新理论、新观点，并揭示事物内在规律的手段。由于认识问题的角度、研究对象的复杂性等诸多因素，研究方法本身又处于一个不断相互影响、相互结合、相互转化的发展过程中，所以，目前对于研究方法的分类，很难有一个完全统一的认识。
二、研究方法的分类
不同的人文社会科学研究的性质、研究使命、研究方法与成果体系都有所不同。
根据不同的研究目的，研究可分为基础理论研究与应用性研究。比如研究理论模式的就属于基础理论研究，而研究理论模式的应用就是应用型研究。在外语教学研究中，人们还常区分实用研究。基础研究、应用研究和实用研究之间的界限并不十分明显。基础研究指导应用和实用研究；在很多情况下，应用和实用研究又直接影响着理论的修改和完善。
根据不同的数据来源，研究可分为文献研究和实证研究。文献研究的资料是文件、著作或杂志中的文章或者已经发表的、别人收集的数据，而实证研究的数据来自现实生活，是第一手信息。
根据研究手段的不同，研究可以分为定性研究和定量研究。
三、常用研究方法
下面对一些常用的研究方法进行简单的介绍。
1. 定性研究
定性研究是对一个或几个具体的个体进行深入的调查，了解其一切情况，然后全面分析，得出结论。
研究者在调查之前没有带任何框框；且研究者可作为一个局外人观察要研究的现象，让一切事情按本来的规律去发生、发展，研究者不受控制和干扰；所采用的方法主要是综合法和归纳法，最后研究的成果大多是描述性的或在描述过程中揭示一定的规律，提出假设或结论。
这种调查的优点是数据效度很高，丰富、真实、深刻，缺点是容易带上主观性，而且难以作出普遍性概括结果。
2. 定量研究
与定性研究相比，定量研究有它的优点。定量研究靠的是数据，靠的是严格的程序，靠的是概论和客观性。
研究者通常是从假设出发，事先有一个看法；往往是要控制和操纵变量的；强调研究的客观性，远离数据，远离当事人，是局外人的视角；所得数据信度高，具有可重复性；所得的结论具有普遍性。
定量方法的缺点是使用起来有很大的限制性。在外语教学与学习过程中做实验，要想控制人的行为是极为困难的，很难达到在实验室里做物理、化学实验时各种条件的完全控制。另外，因为受试者是人，有时还涉及道德问题。
定量方法包括两部分：统计方法和实验方法。统计方法通过随机抽样或非随机抽样，通过一连串的数字、表格、百分比、图标来说明问题。实验方法是通过实验来说明问题。我们在后面会详细介绍具体操作。
3. 描述性研究
描述性研究介于定性研究和实验研究之间，与二者既有相同之处，又有较大的区别。描述性研究会采取方法对所要研究的现象加以定界、描写和说明，但不做任何实验性的操纵或干涉。一般以一两个假设为出发点，然后不断缩小研究范围。
描述性研究收集数据的方法有观察、记录、测试、问卷、面谈、录音、录像、文献查阅等。描述性研究可以包括历史研究、发展研究、勘查、个案研究等。好的描述性研究既可以在很大程度上避免定性分析的主观性，又可以避免实验性研究的不自然性。
例如，研究者要对初中生在课外阅读过程中的主要困难进行调查。他可能对10名或20名初中生的阅读过程进行全面观察，并不控制学生阅读过程中的任何变量，只要求学生把全部难点划出来，通过对困难的分析、归类，了解这些困难的实质和分布情况（如语法方面、词汇方面、篇章方面或文化方面的难点）。
4. 文献研究法
文献研究法又称文献法，是根据一定的研究目的，通过查阅文献来获得资料，全面、正确地了解掌握所要研究问题的一种方法。文献研究法是一种古老而富有生命力的科学研究方法，被广泛用于各种学科研究中。
查阅文献基本方法有：
顺查法，即以文献发表的时间为顺序，由远及近，由旧到新的顺序查找；
逆查法，即以文献发表的时间为顺序，倒查，由近及远，逐年往前查；
跟踪法，又称追溯法、引文查找法，即利用文献末尾或章、节，或页下所附的参考文献和注释，跟踪查找文献，逐步扩大查找范围，以获得更多的资料；
循环法，将上述几种方法交替、轮流使用，以便获得更多的资料；
专家咨询法指调查研究人员在运用文献调查时，就其中的疑难点，向有关专家学者咨询，征求检索资料的意见，以便于更快地查到所需要的资料。
文献法的一般过程包括五个基本环节，分别是：提出课题或假设、研究设计、搜集文献、整理文献和进行文献综述。相对于其他调查方法，文献法有诸多优势：它超越了时间、空间限制，可以对古今中外的文献进行调查研究；它方便、安全、自由，受外界制约较少；它省时、省钱、效率高，可以用较少的人力、经费和时间，获得比其他调查方法更多的信息。
5. 调查法
调查法是有目的、计划、系统地搜集研究对象现状或历史状况材料的方法。此方法是科学研究中常用的研究方法，它运用观察法、历史法等方法以及谈话、问卷、测验、个案研究等方式，对教育现象进行计划周密和系统的了解，并对调查搜集到的大量资料进行分析、比较、综合、归纳，为人们提供相关知识。
调查法中最常用的是问卷调查法，它指研究者运用设计好的问卷向确定的调查对象了解情况或征求意见的调查方法。它与抽样调查相结合，越来越多地被用于定量研究之中。其形式是一份设计好的问题表格，用途在于测量人们的态度和行为等特征。问卷调查的程序包括：设计好调查问卷、选择好调查对象、分发调查问卷、回收审查调查问卷等，最后，集中对问卷调查结果进行统计、分析和理论研究。
问卷调查法是进行大规模统计调查必不可少的一种方法，也是一种间接的书面调查方法。问卷调查法的关键在于问卷的设计。无论是“结构型问卷”“松散型问卷”，还是“混合型问卷”，既要根据调查的目的编写问题，又要将所提问题化整为零，既要针对调查对象设问，又要使所提的问题简洁、明白、易懂。问卷设计在很大程度上决定着问卷填答的质量、回收率和研究结论的正确与否。因此，科学设计的问卷是问卷调查成败的关键。
问卷大致分为两种形式。一种是开放式的问题，即让被调查者随便写话的问题，如：“你对所使用的英美文学教材有何看法？”另一类是结构化的问卷，不让被调查者写什么话，几种可能的回答都印在问卷上，在自己同意的一项上打勾就可以了。如：我对现在所使用的英美文学教材：非常喜欢；喜欢；没看法；不喜欢；很不喜欢。每个选项给予一定的分值，统计结果可以进行量化分析。
问卷设计时，第一，应做到提问标准化、规范化，能使被调查者对所提问题做出正确的理解和回答；第二，提问要单一、具体，一个问题只问一件事，不要在一个问题中问两件或两件以上的事；第三，问卷中的文字要简明扼要，浅显易懂，因此，应尽量运用大众熟悉的语言，切记不要用冷僻和深奥的语言，更不能用难懂晦涩和华丽的辞藻；第四，调查问卷中的提问和答案，要尽量避免使用含义不确切的模糊概念；第五，提问要尽量客观、公正，不能有暗示、诱导性的倾向，否则也难获得真实的情况；第六，最好不提令人窘迫或禁忌、敏感性的问题，否则会被调查者拒答；第七，提问应先易后难，以引起被调查者的兴趣。
调查问卷有不少优点：问卷可同一时间发给许多人，相对其他研究方法来说，省时省力；受试者对敏感问题敢于作真实回答，数据比较可信；格式统一，回答也是格式统一，便于统计，便于比较，符合标准；问卷基本在同一时间发到全部受试者手中，收回的数据，没有时间造成的差异，所以较准确。但是，问卷调查也有一个最大的欠缺就是回收率低。
信度与效度是评价调查结果的两个方面，所以，无论设计多么完善、讲究的问卷，都应该多次修改，并且在小范围内先进行调查，做预试性调查，这样才能保障问卷的信度与效度，才能够达到调查的最终目的，以准确的数据和分析为研究提供有价值的依据。
访谈法是另一种社会调查收集数据的方法。它是调查者通过面对面的直接交谈，向被调查者了解情况，收集资料的一种调查方法。可分为个别访问（也称为直接访问）、间接访问和召开调查会。
访谈可以分为结构化访谈、开放式访谈、半结构化访谈和半开放式访谈。结构化访谈是事先规定好了具体题目，采访时读给被采访者听，让其作答，不要随便发挥。这种方式其优点是节省时间，回答简洁，适用于人数众多的采访；缺点是过于机械，没有人情味，回答有时不可靠。开放式访谈事先不制定统一的访谈问卷，而是按照一个粗线条的访问提纲来进行访问，被采访者可以随便发挥，谈到哪里算哪里。这种方式的优点是有人情味，少有拘束，容易谈得深；缺点是太浪费时间。
访谈法的运用过程如下：
① 设计访谈提纲。在访谈前都要设计一个访谈提纲，明确访谈目的，明确所要求获得的信息，列出所要访谈的内容和提问的主要问题。
② 恰当进行提问。在问题表述上要求准确、简明，尽可能适合被访者；问题类型上可有开放式问题和封闭式问题、具体问题和抽象问题；另外，访谈过程中也要适时、适度地追问。
③ 准确捕捉信息，及时收集资料。访谈法收集资料，主要形式的是进行“倾听”。“倾听”特别需要遵循两个基本原则：不轻易地打断对方，要容忍沉默。
④ 适当做出回应。访谈者不只是进行提问和倾听，还需将自己的意见和想法传递给对方。
⑤ 及时作好访谈记录，有条件的话，一般还要录音或录像。
访谈法的优点是可以得到问卷法难以得到的比较深入实际的资料，缺点是太费时间，消耗成本大，样本数量有限。
所以，部分研究人员会将访谈法、问卷法两种方法结合起来使用。首先调查一个较大的人群，然后对其中某些个人进行特殊的深入访谈，从而了解人们为什么会在调查问卷中写下那些答案。
6. 实验法
实验法，又称实验调查法、实验研究法，是指在一定的人工设计的条件下，按照人工可以控制、干预、影响的设计程序，对被调查研究对象的活动加以观察、记载、分析，以揭示其本质和规律的方法。
与其他调查法相比较，实验调查法的一个突出的特点是鲜明的对照性——实验调查“参照物”。这种参照物有两种情形：一是以实验对象自身在实验前作为“自我对照”；二是选取与实验对象相类似的单位作为对照。实验的结论均是通过对照出来的，因此可以认为：没有对照，就没有实验调查法。而“参照物”可以是一个，也可以是一组或几组。
英语类论文的实验法主要用于教学实验研究。教学实验研究与一般的科学实验不同。科学实验的对象一般是自然物质或者动植物，实验时需要对实验对象、实验环境、实验步骤进行严格控制，排除一切干扰变量的影响，所得结果才能揭示所要研究变量之间的真正关系。而教学实验的对象是接受教育的学生与传道授业的教师。操纵自变量和人为干预要受到伦理道德和社会舆论的限制，需要精心安排和考虑。要在尽可能不干扰正常教学的前提下，开展实验研究。不能过分强调对干扰变量的控制，时间也不宜长，以免不当的教学活动误人子弟。
实验研究可以比较两组人，例如某教师不能确定情境语法教学法和传统语法教学法哪种更有成效，她把任教的两个班级分为实验组和对照组，在实验组实施情景语法教学，在对照组采用传统语法讲授，然后对比两组学生语法学习效果是否有差异。实验研究也可以比较多组人，例如有教师想要知道教师批改、同伴互批和学生自我纠错哪种方法对提高学生的写作水平更有帮助，她对三组学生分别采用这三种不同的作文反馈方式，最后通过作文测试得到答案。实验研究还可以对一组研究对象进行组内比较，例如学生记忆单词时常用三种词汇学习策略，教师想了解哪种策略的词汇记忆效果最好，他让一个班的同学在不同时间学习三组词汇，分别采用三种不同学习策略，最后对全班同学进行词汇测试，看哪组词学生记得最好。
7. 个案研究法
个案研究法，也称个案调查法、个别调查法。它是指以特定的具体单位作为深入细致的调查研究对象，通过对这个对象的调查，达到“以一斑窥全豹”的目的，对调查研究对象与同类事物之间关系有较深刻的认识。个案调查涉及面小，内容全面。它的调查对象是一个具体单位。这个“具体单位”可以是一个社区、一个团体、一个家庭、一个人，也可以是一种社会现象、一个事件、一个过程等。个案调查的涉及面虽小但调查的内容是较为全面深入的，也就是说，对“这一个具体单位”做历史的、现实的、横向的、纵向的全面调查，以弄清其来龙去脉，全方位地把握个案的全貌。
个案研究在许多专业领域起到了重要作用，如管理、教育领域等。在这些领域中进行严格控制性实验似乎不太可行，因为所有可能的变量都涉及人与人、人与环境的相互作用，所以很难控制那些变量。因此，个案研究法填补了这个空缺。
个案研究法常用于定性研究和描述性研究。个案研究的长处是能够集中、深入地调查了解一个或几个个体对象：可以是一个人、一个班、一个学校，也可以是一个问题、一个现象。其不足之处在于广度不够。个案研究所得出的结论较难由其他研究人员通过重复进行而得以验证。
个案研究在教学研究领域内应用比较广泛。研究者选择某个视角了解研究对象的观念、态度行为等。比如任课教师可以通过对某学生仔细观察与深度访谈，了解其学习努力而成效不高的原因；比如通过深入了解某一类学生，了解小学阶段未学英语的中学生在学习上存在哪些困难；比如可以用个案研究了解内向型和外向型学生在学习方法上是否存在有差异。
8. 观察法
观察法是指研究者根据自己的研究目的、研究提纲或观察表，用感官和辅助工具直接观察被研究对象而获得资料的一种方法。科学的观察具有目的性、计划性、系统性、可重复性等特征。
观察法可分为两种：一种是研究者作为一个旁观者去观察，一种是研究者作为一个参与者去观察。不论研究者在研究现场如何设法不引人注意，他们的存在都会影响到正在研究的现象。因此，建议研究者注意四点：第一，根据课题的需要，尽量参与到活动中去；第二，对自己的参与所引起的“波动”要有充分的认识；第三，对那些会影响调查质量的“波动”，要尽量克服或抵消；第四，在报告中把成功的地方和失败的地方都写出来。
观察性研究的价值主要体现在它是在特定背景和情况下对行为进行直接观察。尽管他人的调查研究和自我报告可以快速地为研究人员提供信息，而且可以被精确量化，但对研究者来说，它们充其量也只是对行为的间接量度，带有偏见、倾向性和报告撰写人的主观意见。在观察性研究中，研究者则可以弄清人们的真实行为。但是，观察性研究也存在其弱点：观察人员必须处理的一个问题是他们可能影响，甚至妨碍被观察的活动和行为。因此，研究人员不仅要客观地记录观察结果，而且必须考虑研究过程将如何影响最终结果。在科学实验和调查研究中，观察法具有扩大人们的感性认识、启发人们的思维、导致新的发现等作用。
阅读与观察主题相关的文献是开展观察活动的必要准备，只有熟悉了文献中所提到的观察方法和问题，研究者才能够清晰地界定观察对象，明确通过观察想要了解什么、想要观察哪些变量以及打算如何搜集信息。
要保证观察到的东西真实可靠，研究者需要长期参与和持续观察。只有长期参与才会使研究者被受试者接受和信任，才能观察到真实情况；而只有长期参与才能使研究者学会保持中立，才能深刻地认识到他们的任务不是干涉，不是教育别人，而是去“描写”观察到的一切。
9. 抽样调查法
抽样调查法是指把调查对象当作总体，按照随机或非随机的原则，抽出一定数量调查单位为样本，通过对样本的直接调查、分析，然后借助统计推论的方法，推断出调查研究对象总体的状况、特征、性质等情况。简言之，抽样调查就是以“点”代“面”，以“部分”反映“整体”。
抽样调查中有三个重要概念。一是总体，指被调查对象的全部单位总和；二是元素，是构成总体的最基本单位，可以是一个人、一个企业或一所学校等；三是样本，就是从总体所包含的全部元素中，抽取出来进行调查的部分元素的集合。例如，从某高校3万名大学生中抽取2000名大学生进行心理健康的调查，这2000名学生就是样本。
抽样调查是通过数目虽然有限却能够代表总体的样本调查，对总体的状况做出推断。为使抽取的样本具有代表性，常根据调查研究目的、分析对象的性质，与所处环境的不同，采用多种不同的抽样方法。概括起来可分为两大类：随机抽样和非随机抽样。
随机抽样是严格遵循随机原则，使总体中每一个元素都有被抽出来作为样本的同等机会。随机抽样避免了抽样过程中许多人为的误差，从而保证了样本的代表性。
非随机抽样是指根据研究者个人的方便或以个人的主观经验、设想，有选择地抽取样本的方法。非随机抽样的样本的代表性往往较小，误差有时相当大，而且这种误差又无法估计。所以正式调查中，一般较少采用非随机抽样，往往只在探索性研究中采用。
10. 发展研究法
发展研究法主要描述特定环境下变量之间的现存关系，且随着时间的推移这些关系的变化情况。在教育研究中，发展研究法主要用来讨论年幼儿童学习、运动和感知技能等的过程。最明显的例子是儿童在双语家庭中，观察他们的第二语言如何与母语同时发展；移民儿童学习第二语言的不同阶段的不同特征；同样作为第二语言，英语有没有比较固定的习得顺序？可不可以违反这个习得顺序？母语不同的移民儿童在习得英语时是否会有不同的习得顺序？这些问题都要用发展研究方法加以研究。
11. 追溯性研究法
追溯性研究是说“事情已经发生了”，现在来研究为什么会发生这种事情。它是通过调查现在的情况去探讨造成目前状况的原因。比如，研究者要研究优秀外语学习者是由哪些因素构成的。那么，研究者就需要选一组优秀学习者作为参照组，选一组成绩较差的学习者作为研究者，然后研究是什么因素使优秀外语学习者明显好于其他人：智力、语言学能、人格因素、学习方法、教师质量、学校环境、父母支持，等等。
12. 归纳法与演绎法
归纳法是指研究者或许没有理论指导或者现成假设，始于外语学习现象的阅读、观察和记录等，材料收集到一定程度时，对掌握材料分析整理后写成报告，把自己的观察加以详细描写，描写中也可能提出某种假设。因此这种研究法被称为“产生假设的研究”。例如，研究者要探讨为什么有些外语学习者总是比其他学习者学得好。研究者决定在课堂环境下观察几组学习者的表现，把一切有关的信息都记录下来（谁常常举手主动回答问题，谁主动向老师提问，谁参与得多，谁的态度被动、消极，谁记得笔记最多等），然后把课堂表现与学期成绩相比较，最后找出优秀学习者的课堂表现特征。研究者可以参考其他研究者的观点，也可以从头开始，不带任何“先见”。一般来说，采用归纳法时，最好避免先入为主，不带任何框框，从原始材料入手，让材料本身“讲话”，从中发现规律性的东西。
演绎法又被称为“检验假设的研究”，是指研究者已有一种或几种来自归纳法的假设，或来自其他研究者的理论假设，也就是已经有某种看法，在假设作用下，检验这种假设，最后形成理论。
13. 综合法与分析法
如果研究是从整体下手或从大的子系统下手，以便清楚观察各个组成成分之间的相互关系，那就是用了综合法；反之，如果研究是从最小的子系统着手，经过详尽研究之后，再把小的子系统组装成大的子系统，然后统观整体呈现的各种关系，那就是分析法。
以上种种，只是教学研究中最常见的一些研究方法，而实际运用的研究方法之多难以穷尽，研究者一定要根据自己的研究内容选择合适的研究方法。
附录
英语专业推荐书目
书名作者出版社出版
时间
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出版社2009
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出版社1986
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出版社1992
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出版社1993
模糊语言学伍铁平上海外语教育
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出版社2012
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出版社1990
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跨文化交际学贾玉新上海外语教育
出版社1997
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出版社1996
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出版社1996
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出版社2011
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出版社2003
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OBrien中国人民大学
出版社2008
A History of
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PeopleWinston ChurchillMc Clelland &
Stewart1995
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的认识与超越高一虹外语教学与
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美国历史文化常俊跃，夏洋，赵永青北京大学
出版社2010
语言与社会生活陈原三联书店1980
美国社会文化王恩铭北京大学
出版社2011
跨文化交流学——
提高涉外交流能力的学问关世杰北京大学
出版社1995
英国历史文化常俊跃，夏洋，赵永青北京大学
出版社2010
你能用英文读懂
的美国历史Andrew Grant，
王若平编著航空工业
出版社2010
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出版社1996
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出版社1999
文化与交际胡文仲主编外语教学与
研究出版社1998
语言与文化——
英汉语言文化对比邓炎昌，刘润清外语教学与
研究出版社1999
与英美人交往的
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出版社1987
中国和英语国家
非语言交际对比Leger Brosnahan著，
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西方宗教文化赵林武汉大学
出版社2011
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出版社1999
英语教学史A.P.R.Howatt上海外语教育
出版社1999
语言教学的环境与文化Claire Kramsch上海外语教育
出版社1999
语言教学的基本概念H.H. Stern上海外语教育
出版社1999
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出版社1999
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出版社1999
语言学习认知法Peter Skehan上海外语教育
出版社1999
语言教学交际法H.G. Widdowson上海外语教育
出版社1999
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出版社2000
论以语言学习者为中心Elaine Tarone &
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出版社2000
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出版社2009
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出版社2003
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教育出版社2001
方法论视域下的
英语教学新探冯展极，周萍，
张丽杰北京工业大学
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英语教学策略论王笃勤编著外语教学与
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新英语课堂
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英语学科教育学秦杰，田金斗外语教学与
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跨文化外语教学张红玲上海外语教育
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词汇学习与教学I.S.P. Nation上海外语教育
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外语教学心理学朱纯编著上海外语教育
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外语教学改革：问题与对策束定芳上海外语教育
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Practical Techniques for
Language TeachingMichael Lewis &
Jimmie Hill外语教学与
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翻译教程Peter Newmark上海外语教育
出版社2004
余光中谈翻译余光中中国对外翻译
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英汉翻译津指陈生保等中国对外翻译
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新编奈达论翻译谭载喜编中国对外翻译
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文化与翻译郭建中中国对外翻译
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唐诗百话施蛰存华东师范大学
出版社2001
西方翻译简史谭载喜商务印书馆2004
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与文化透视谢天振上海外语
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科技英语翻译理论与技巧戴文进上海外语
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英汉语比较与翻译杨自俭上海外语
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翻译科学探讨Eugene A. Nida上海外语
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翻译问题探讨Peter Newmark上海外语
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翻译与性别：女性主义
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语言与文化：翻译中的语境Engene A. Nida上海外语
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译道探微思果中国对外翻译
出版公司2002
等效翻译探索（增订版）金堤中国对外翻译
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中国翻译简史（增订版）马祖毅中国对外翻译
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翻译与人生周兆祥中国对外翻译
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汉英科技翻译指要冯志杰中国对外翻译
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英汉比较与翻译（修订版）陈定安中国对外翻译
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文学翻译十讲刘重德编著中国对外翻译
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词语翻译丛谈陈忠诚中国对外翻译
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语篇翻译引论李运兴中国对外翻译
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艺术比较研究党争胜北京大学
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译出版公司1985
第四章毕业论文的开题
第四章毕业论文的开题
第一节开题与开题报告
一、开题和开题报告的含义与属性
所谓开题，是由学位论文答辩委员会讨论，学生在其论文指导教师指导下所选择的论文题目是否科学合理、研究计划是否具有可行性、论文形式是否符合规范的一系列工作过程。
本科毕业论文的开题报告是大学本科生在完成文献资料收集、文献综述撰写后写成的论述性报告。开题报告是对毕业论文课题的文字说明材料，要求作者将自己初选的题目、思路、内容等以书面形式向论文答辩委员会、导师做简要说明介绍。
开题报告不是毕业论文的雏形，只是论文的写作构思和初步打算，其实是学生经过一段时期的文献阅读和精心准备之后，向论文答辩委员会汇报论文的准备情况，同时听取答辩老师就自己研究思路方向给予的意见和建议，达到进一步明确所研究目标、理清所研究思路、懂得所研究方法并使论文最终圆满完成的目的。
对于学生来说，主要是希望通过开题报告和开题的过程从答辩委员会老师获得正确的评价和更多帮助，也包括论文的选题获得通过。因此，应当从论文的内容上、思路上、材料上和方法上、研究的可行性上精心准备，深入地介绍说明，并且接受老师们的批评和建议。
对于学校和导师组来说，开题是指导学生论文的必要环节，是对学生研究工作进展情况的一个初步检查。同时，答辩委员会老师也会对学生的论文开题报告进行认真的审阅和讨论，并提出修改的意见。当然，如果开题报告获得通过，则学生即可以进行论文的写作；如果不通过，那学生就要进行再度修改，并再进行一次开题。
二、开题报告的目的与意义
开题报告是决定论文写作成败的关键问题，并且直接制约着论文完成的进度、质量和水平，具有十分重要的地位和作用。
开题报告目的有二：其一，通过开题报告，将所选课题框架内容、目前现状、选题意义、重点要点、创新思路、引证材料以及参考文献书目做一个总体规划，为撰写论文文本做好充分准备；其二，通过开题报告，听取别人意见，进一步理顺论文思路，使论文结构更趋完善，内容更加翔实。
本科毕业论文的开题报告在深度和广度上小于科研课题的开题报告，也没有硕博研究生开题报告要求严格。它的主要意义是使大学生通过开题，熟悉科研工作的一般步骤流程，明白解决科研课题的思路与方法。与此同时，在毕业论文的形成过程中，开题报告是提高论文选题质量的重要一环。此外，开题者可以通过开题报告，整理、概括、提炼对课题的认识，通过开题报告的答辩明确研究目的意义，开阔课题的思路，使研究目标更加明确，解决方案更加切实可行。
第二节毕业论文开题报告的写作
一、开题报告的内容结构
开题报告是学位论文研究内容能够成立并顺利完成的前提保证，一般为表格式，需要把要报告的每一项内容转换成栏目形式，这样既方便开题报告按项目填写，避免遗漏，又让评审者看着一目了然，把握要点。一般开题报告内容包括研究背景、研究目的与意义、文献综述、适用理论与研究方法、研究内容和论文框架、写作进展安排、参考文献等。目前，我国好多高校都有自己的开题报告模板，所设置的项目不尽相同。
一般来说，开题报告包含以下要素：
引言（Introduction of the Proposal）
选题背景（Background）
问题陈述（Problem Statement）
选题意义（Significance）
文献综述（Literature Review）
研究方法（Methodology）
提纲（Outline）
进度安排（Work Plan）
参考文献（Bibliography）
开题报告一般以2000字左右为宜，篇幅不必过长，主要体现论文的构思和写作的大致思路，要重点把计划研究课题的题目、研究大致思路、拟解决关键问题等说清楚。
下面以××大学的开题报告为例，谈谈如何撰写开题报告。此开题报告共包含课题的来源及研究意义、国内外发展状况及研究背景、本课题的研究目标和内容、本课题研究方法及进度安排、研究方案（或实验方案）的可行性分析和已具备的研究条件（或实验条件）、参考文献六部分。
1. 课题的来源和意义
课题的来源主要阐述论文选题的客观环境和条件，比如：选题与时代发展、社会状况的关系，要阐明选题的根据是什么，是受什么启示而进行这项研究的，为选题找到现实的来源。具体来说，可以针对这几个方面进行回答：提出课题的依据，研究这个课题的原因，研究这个课题的主要意义，研究这个课题的理论价值或应用价值。主要内容包括研究的历史背景，目前研究中存在的不足，或者实际应用中存在的问题，研究的必要性。切记要写得具体、精炼，有针对性。
课题来源的写法有三种：
一是分层次概括、描绘选题所面临的时代、社会状况，选择本课题的直接原因，其实就是为选题找一个合理的客观理由，并说明其现实的意义、研究的价值。
二是对于调查报告和案例分析式论文来说，主要介绍事件或案例发生的背景、各种议论和看法、事件形成的原因。介绍这些情况的目的就是要说明研究的动机或出发点，说明将事件作为论文来探讨的必要性。
三是偏重于说理性的论文，除了简要描述客观背景外，在这部分应当重点写论文选题的国外研究现状、前人研究的成果、相关学科对它的影响、目前社会人士对所选题目的几种看法，以及个人对这些问题的归纳、梳理和评论，包括前人研究的成绩和不足，其目的是突出自己在这方面深入研究的现实意义和可能出现的创新点。
课题的研究意义就是选题的价值和作用，可以从两方面加以归纳，一是研究对象对于研究者自身可能具有的意义，二是选题本身具有的客观价值。这部分要说清楚本选题的研究的理论意义和实践意义。从理论角度看，有哪些方面的突破，价值取向是什么？本选题与相关领域之间有何关系？从实践角度看，选题所研究的问题在实践中有什么地位、影响、用途、效果或效益。以英语教学法为例，选题是否有助于英语教师和学生把握教、学的动向，是否有助于提高英语教学质量。
2. 国内外发展状况及研究背景
国内外发展状况及研究背景就是把自己收集到的文献进行阅读、选择、比较、分类、分析和综合，然后用自己的语言对某一问题的研究状况进行综合叙述。
具体阐述国内、国外哪些学者对该选题做过相关研究，课题在国内外研究中处于何等地位？是属于尚未开拓的领域，还是在已研究的基础上做深层次的再研究？国内外的哪些论文论著曾涉及本选题的内容？
这部分内容不应只是相关文献资料的重复、罗列和介绍，而应是对以往文献中的优缺点和贡献的批判性分析与评论。
3. 本课题的研究目标和研究内容
该部分要说清楚课题研究的预期目标？以中学英语教学法方向的课题为例，要说明拟解决英语教与学、理论与实践等方面的哪些问题，此类问题应是在教学实践中比较突出，又难以解决的；或者是前人未解决过的，甚至是能填补某一领域的空白的问题。
研究内容就是指论文拟研究解决的问题，说清楚与课题研究有关的基础理论，以及课题的研究内容。重点介绍研究过程中的理论、方法和需解决问题，可包括对解决问题的一些构思。研究内容部分只是初步的构思，所以，文字要简练，不需要长篇大论。
4. 本课题的研究方法和进度安排
在论文写作中，方法的运用是相当重要的，在开题报告中必须专门说明所使用的研究方法。在科学研究中，新方法的使用是有“方法论上的意义”的。论文的研究方法就是指论文的研究和写作过程中所采用的手段。
上一章已经介绍过，人文社会科学的研究方法有很多，诸如文献研究法、实证研究法、定量分析法、定性分析法、社会调查法、观察法、实验法、个案研究法、跨学科研究法等。由于研究方法很多，使用的关键在于选择，确定研究方法时要叙述清楚“做些什么”和“怎样做”。还有一点，在写使用方法的时候应该具体一点，具体说明究竟用了什么方法进行研究。
除了研究方法，在开题报告中还应包括对论文写作进程情况的叙述，要按时间顺序分阶段列出论文的进展情况，比如：完成开题报告时间，完成初稿时间，提交论文二稿时间，提交论文定稿时间，答辩时间，等等。
5. 研究方案（或实验方案）的可行性分析和已具备的研究条件（或实验条件）
所谓可行性分析指的是研究者要讲清楚自己能在规定的时间范围内，利用现有的人力、物力、财力找到问题的答案，要说清楚所选择的课题是自己能够驾驭得了的题目。通常要考虑以下几个因素：研究这个问题需要的条件、所需的时间、本身的能力和水平。
这里主要针对调研类论文谈一下，调研计划中，方案制定要操作性强，做到切实可行。因为本科毕业论文写作周期短，一般不提倡难度较大的调研方案。相反，一些电子文献的查找、简单的实验或就某个问题的问卷调查，这些方案都是可以的。
6. 参考文献
参考文献是在论文写作过程中，对相关著作、论文、教材的整体参考或部分借鉴。开题报告中所列的参考文献可能与论文完成时所列的不完全一样，因为这时列出的参考文献主要是为开题的需要，为说明研究思路等方面的需要服务的。
二、开题报告写作中应注意的问题
1. 国内外发展状况及研究背景部分不够深入
一种问题是对已有的学术观点分析不足。只简单罗列别人观点，未对已有成果进行分类、归纳和评价。这样，就难理清已有成果前后继承或横向关联关系。还有一种问题是没有提炼出主要学术观点。虽然对已有的成果进行了分析评价，但对问题的提炼不精确。对他人成果进行评价并不是最终目的。只有在评说别人成果的基础上，挖掘出待研究的问题，才可能达到文献综述的目的。
2. 国内外发展状况及研究背景力求精练、规范
国内外发展状况及研究背景论述内容太长，很容易冲淡开题报告的主题。所以，开题报告论述重点应放在陈述拟研究的内容上，而不是把重点放在文献综述上。所以，这一部分内容其实是单独文献综述的“综述”，是它的高度提炼。
3. 研究内容部分，叙述时态表达不科学
大家在撰写课题研究内容这部分时，要注意一些术语表达。如：有同学在开题报告中作此叙述：“本文主要对……问题进行了……研究”。但开题报告是在毕业论文形成之前就要写的，此时文章还没有形成。因此，建议改成“本选题主要对……问题拟进行……研究”“本选题主要将对……问题进行……研究”“本选题试图对……问题进行……研究”“本选题旨在研究……问题”，等等。
4. 对拟解决的关键问题部分要简短醒目，叙述清楚
不少同学在写作此部分时常常叙述过多，导致一些常识性的问题也成了关键研究问题。有同学把一些概念的定义也作为研究关键，给人一种无论什么问题都是关键问题的错误感觉。关键问题一般应是解决问题的突破点和关键所在，在这部分必须要把关键问题和选题用到的基础理论分得清清楚楚。
5. 时间安排不科学，计划不周密
这主要是指时间的安排没有可行性。本科毕业论文集中写作为三个月，加上前前后后，选题、查阅资料等也不足一年的时间，这就要求论文作者合理安排写作时间及研究进度。
除此以外，开题报告可能还存在以下问题：
各部分缺乏条理和逻辑；
语言罗嗦，内容重复，不得实际要领；
列举文献不够权威，有些缺乏分量，有些与选题无关；
对文献仅做简单罗列，不能用批判的眼光做出有说服力的评判；
过分依赖手头的二手资料。
第三节毕业论文开题答辩
在开题报告完成以后，答辩委员会老师会对研究者的课题和设计思路进行审核，而这种审核就是以答辩的方式进行的，分为自我陈述和答辩评委点评两部分，称为开题答辩。开题答辩通过后，方可进入论文的写作阶段。
无论是何选题，老师、评委都需要在开题报告和开题答辩中找到以下问题的答案：
1. 选题是否适合作为本科毕业论文的题目？
2. 你想要研究什么？你的研究需要多长时间？
3. 你的选题与你的专业有无联系？
4. 你的选题领域中，别人已有了什么样的研究？
5. 你的研究规划是什么样的？
6. 研究结果将如何进行评估？
一般来说，本科生的毕业论文开题答辩时间较短，应把陈述重点放在拟研究的内容或者关键的问题上，并在陈述时进行必要的阐述，尽量解释清楚内容的含义，自己对此的观点或想要解决的构思，使评委老师容易明白研究方案的可行性和创新性。
论文开题答辩是对选题是否恰当、研究能否如期顺利进行的一个初步测验。答辩过程中评委往往会有不曾想到的问题要提出，会纠正一些可能错误的认识，帮助学生理清解决问题的思路。答辩完毕后，学生要根据答辩情况，再度修改开题报告，有时可能要重新选题，并将答辩时的一些意见和建议贯彻到毕业论文的写作中去。
此外，在答辩过程中，要注意倾听评委老师的提问，认真思考，对不能回答的问题最好明确表示不懂。要认识答辩的目的不是为了蒙混过关，而是要通过答辩，从评委提出的问题和建议中深切明白研究问题的关键所在，使课题的研究思路更加明晰，研究方法受到启发。
值得注意的问题是，虽然开题有“通过”“修改后通过”和“不通过”之说，但是，开题与论文答辩是不同的，学生固然可以就有关选题的问题进行说明和解释，但学生面对老师的态度不是辩论，而是咨询和求教，因此，学生应尽可能地多听老师们的指导，以获得更多的帮助和教诲，当然更多的可能是批评。这些帮助、教诲和批评，对学生来说绝对是宝贵的经验，对于以后的研究和论文写作有着极大帮助，应该加倍注意这个问题。
总之，开题和开题报告相关工作不仅仅是一张表格的事情。除了要把开题报告表格内容填好，我们还要重视开题报告进行中和答辩后的事情，特别是在答辩完毕后，对课题以及相关内容必须进行修改和完善。只有这样，才能真正达到开题的目的，也才能为今后毕业论文的顺利写作奠定下坚实的基础。
附录
××大学20××届毕业论文（设计）开题报告
（学生用表）
系（部）：专业：班级：
课题名称
指导教师学生学号
【1. 内容包括：课题的来源及研究意义，国内外发展状况及研究背景，本课题的研究目标和内容，本课题研究方法及进度安排，研究方案（或实验方案）的可行性分析和已具备的研究条件（或实验条件），参考文献等六部分。2. 撰写要求：字体为五号宋体，字数不少于1000字。】
指导教师意见：
指导教师签名：
年月日
注：1. 本表可根据内容续页；2. 指导教师意见及签名手写，其他内容电子版填写。
××大学20××届毕业论文开题报告
（学生用表）
系（部）：专业：班级：
课题名称从目的论视角看药品说明书的汉译
指导教师***学生***学号***
课题来源
药品说明书是载明药品的重要信息的法定文件，是选用药品的法定指南。药品说明书的内容应包括药品的品名、规格、有效期、主要成分、适应证或功能主治、用法、用量、禁忌、不良反应和注意事项，药品说明书能提供用药信息，是医务人员、患者了解药品的重要途径。说明书的规范程度与医疗质量密切相关。
近年来，越来越多的国外药品进入中国市场，然而在中国消费者要服用外国药品时，很多人都看不懂进口药品的说明书；有些药品说明书的翻译也是错误百出。药品说明书不同于其他物品如化妆品等的说明书，对其准确的理解和把握关系到性命攸关的大事，不能有丝毫差池。但仔细调查现在的药品说明书的译文，读者时常被漏译、前后关系颠倒、措辞随意、数据搞错等原因所困扰。这样翻译不准确或者错误百出的说明书，直接导致的就是医生和病人不能正确地用药，将造成不可想象的后果，所以，仔细研究其特点并准确翻译药品说明书对现有状况会有很大改善。
课题意义
研究该课题主要意义在于通过目的论这一翻译理论准确翻译国外进口药品说明书，提高其翻译质量，使更多的中国人能够了解和使用外国进口药品。并且希望通过研究药品说明书的汉译，能够给中国药品说明书做一个典范或者提出警醒，是中文药品说明书能够更加明确，从而造福广大民众。
国内外发展状况及研究背景
国内许多人对英文药品说明书的翻译都有研究，河南师范大学的解晓丽（2011）在她的《目的论视角下的英语药品说明书汉语翻译研究》一文中，基于德国功能主义学派的翻译目的论的三原则，通过对所搜集到的中英文对照的进口药品说明书进行分析,总结了药品说明书汉译存在的主要问题并且提出了改进的意见。吴松林与齐爽（2006）在《英文药品说明书的汉译》一文中，围绕药品说明书的特点、基本语言结构及其翻译技巧进行讨论。马邦新（1998）在他的《英文药品说明书的翻译》一文中则是通过对药品说明书的结构分析，研究其翻译方法。王博（2010）在《英文药品说明书的特点及翻译》一文中，通过研究药品说明书的语言特点，对其翻译方法进行研究。对药品说明书含义的研究中，从目的论视角出发的不是很多。
课题研究目标
该课题通过搜集英文药品说明书语料并进行归类整理，归纳出药品说明书的结构特征和语言特征，运用翻译目的论对翻译方法进行指导。其目标是进一步加深对英文药品说明书的结构和语言特点的了解，并将论文结论运用于翻译实践。
研究内容
本文主要通过对所搜集到的中英文对照的进口药品说明书进行分析，以德国功能主义学派的翻译目的论的三原则为理论依据，试图研究英文药品说明书的翻译方法及策略，从而指导英文药品说明书发翻译实践。
（续表）
药品说明书作为一种科技应用文,有其独特的文体和语体特点。英文药品说明书的汉译实践在德国功能主义翻译目的论三个法则（即忠实法则、连贯法则、目的法则）的指导下，更具有科学性。深刻领会该原则指导下的翻译方法有助于熟练地掌握这一类型文本的翻译技巧,从而实现药品说明书的正确理解和翻译。
课题研究方法:文章采用观察法、文献研究法、描述性研究法等研究方法。
进度安排
开题报告2014.10.17—2014.12.31
确定提纲2015.01.01—2015.03.08
初稿2015.03.09—2015.03.23
二稿2015.03.24—2015.04.13
定稿2015.04.15—2015.05.11
具体参考文献
邓炎昌,刘润清.语言与文化[M].北京:北京外语教学语言就出版社,1989.
刘奉连.常用进口药品简明手册[M].北京:人民军医出版社,1989.
马邦新.英文药品说明书的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,1998(3).
尚婷.英文药品说明书的认知语类分析[D].西南大学,2006.
王博.英文药品说明书的特点及翻译[J].牡丹江大学学报,2010(8).
王洋.从目的论看英文药品说明书汉译对策[D].湖南大学,2013.
解晓丽.目的论视角下的英语药品说明书汉语翻译研究[D].河南师范大学,2011.
张培基.习语汉译英研究[M].北京:北京商务印书馆,1997.
指导教师意见：
指导教师签名：
年月日
××大学20××届毕业论文开题报告
（学生用表）
系（部）：专业：班级：
课题名称从顺应论看《哈利·波特》系列小说中的人物语言
指导教师***学生***学号***
课题来源
无论从文学角度还是商业角度，《哈利·波特》都取得了巨大成功，书中人物也受到众多学者和读者的喜爱与关注。鉴于人物语言是塑造人物形象的主要手段之一，在表达人物态度、展现人物性格等方面都起着至关重要的作用，分析小说人物的语言使用将有利于读者更好地欣赏该作品。而1999年维索尔伦在Understanding Pragmatics一书中提出的较系统、成熟的顺应论认为，人类使用语言是一个语言选择的过程，其在不同程度上反应了语言使用者对语言使用环境和语言结构的顺应。本文正是以维索尔伦的顺应论为理论依据，从《哈利·波特》中人物的语言入手分析在特定情境和背景下，人物做出的语言选择所反应出来的隐含的对心理世界、社交世界、物理世界的顺应。
课题意义
本研究兼具一定的理论与实践意义。从理论上讲，本文为解释《哈利·波特》中的人物语言提供了一个新视角；从应用角度上看，本文应用顺应论分析解释了《哈利·波特》系列小说中的人物语言，有助于读者更好地理解《哈利·波特》中的语言艺术和人物特点。
国内外发展状况及研究背景
随着《哈利·波特》系列小说席卷全球，受到了国内外很多学者的关注。对于国外学者，一些学者更倾向研究书中折射出来的社会现象，诸如政治腐败、种族歧视等主题。另外，一些学者研究了其中的文学概念，例如英雄主义、浪漫主义和哥特式亲属关系等；还有一些学者研究了J.K. Rowling在为地点和人物等进行命名的修辞艺术及使用的谚语。国内对《哈利·波特》系列小说的研究也很多，特别是在翻译领域的研究，除此之外，以研究魔法元素、象征意义、文化原型等的文献居多。其中，从语用学角度研究《哈利·波特》系列小说的人物言语研究则较少。
课题研究目标
该课题通过从顺应理论的角度分析人物语言，其目标是加深读者对顺应理论科学性的认识和理解，在人们喜闻乐见的作品中来学习感受顺应理论。另外，本文要为解释《哈利·波特》中的人物语言提供一个语用学的新视角，帮助读者更好地理解《哈利·波特》的语言艺术和人物特点进而更好地欣赏该作品。
课题研究内容
本文主要通过对所摘录到的《哈利·波特》系列小说的人物语言进行分析，以维索尔伦的顺应论为理论依据，试图研究特定场合与语境下人物语言选择与心理世界、社交世界和物理世界的顺应关系，从语用学的角度帮助读者解读小说人物。
课题研究方法
文章采用文献查阅法、文献分析法、定性分析等研究方法。
进度安排
开题报告2016.10.01—2016.12.31
（续表）
确定提纲2016.01.01—2017.02.28
初稿2017.03.01—2017.03.10
二稿2017.03.11—2017.04.18
定稿2017.04.19—2017.05.20
课题可行性分析和已具备的研究条件
该课题有大量的参考文献，有理论书籍作支撑，网上也有一些相关的研究分析，为论文的撰写提供了相关的理论依据，在课题的实施和操作上更有助于课题的开展。
主要参考文献
J.K.Rowling. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows [M]. New York: Scholastic Press, 2007.
J.K.Rowling. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire [M]. New York: Scholastic Press, 2000.
J.K.Rowling. Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone [M]. New York: Scholastic Press, 1998.
Jef Verschuren. Understanding Pragmatics [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Katie L. Baker. Harry Potter: A Hero of Mythic Proportions [D]. Buffalo State College, 2011
毕丽娟.从顺应论视角分析小说《追风筝的人》中的对话[D].武夷山市:武夷学院现代信息服务学院,2015.
彭婧.《哈利波特》中委婉语的分析[D].杭州:杭州师范大学,2012.
尚婷.从语境顺应论视角研究小说《理智与情感》中的人物语言[D].北京:华北电力大学,2011.
谢朝群,陈新仁.语用三论:关联论·顺应论·模因论[M].上海:上海出版社,2007.
徐芬.从顺应论角度分析小说《傲慢与偏见》的对话[D].济南:山东大学,2010.
指导教师意见：
指导教师签名：
年月日
××大学20××届毕业论文开题报告
（学生用表）
系（部）：专业：班级：
课题名称肢体语言在农村小学英语教学中的应用
指导教师***学生***学号***
课题来源及研究意义
肢体语言在交际中有着其他语言无法替代的作用，尤其是在小学英语教学中。根据目前小学英语课堂的教学现状和小学生的特点，英语老师在课堂上仅用英语口语组织教学来营造英语语言气氛是不够的，教师还需要借助肢体语言来提高教学效果。尤其是在基础设施不完善的农村
小学英语教学课堂上，教师的肢体语言更加重要。在小学英语课堂上，丰富的肢体语言，如各种各样的面部表情、手势、夸张的动作，甚至眼神都对活跃课堂气氛、增加有声语言的表达效果起到不容忽视的作用。因此，研究肢体语言在农村小学英语教学中的具体应用情况，提出有价值的建议，对提高教师在教学中肢体语言的使用能力，促进教学方法的改进，激发学生学习英语的兴趣，提高学习效率有着现实指导意义。
国内外发展状况及研究背景
肢体语言应用于教育教学活动在现阶段是广大教育研究者研究和讨论的热门话题。在过去的几年中，许多研究者研究了肢体语言在教育领域的重要性，认为肢体语言在外国语言的教育方面可以起到辅助的效果，尤其是应用于对外国语言教学的领域中。例如，美国语言学家里弗斯探讨了外语教师素质的重要性，包括教师应了解学生的行为，姿势和面部表情，并指出教师应该更频繁地使用身体语言。肢体语言应用于教育虽然历史悠久，但是正式应用于教育却是四百多年前，可考察到的是法国第一位伟大的聋哑教育家德佩雷神父，为了表达的需要创造发明了手语，这也是最基本的肢体语言。到了1960年，他的收容所变成了学校，他担任第一任校长，从此致力于肢体语言在教学方面的研究。语言学家W. Rivers从外语教学的角度阐述了外语教师文化素质的重要性，其中包括教师对所教语言国家人们的举止、手势和面部表情等的了解，从而引起教育界对体态语研究的高度重视，使体态语研究成为外语教学中一项重要内容。Allen & Ryan在微格教学的设计中也就运用体态语来配合言语行为进行了说明。一些美国学者还积极地为中小学教师开设有关体态语方面的指导课程，举办培训班来推广他们的研究成果。
中国也越来越重视教育领域肢体语言的研究。为了提高教学质量，创造愉快的课堂气氛，许多学者对此进行了多项研究。例如，蒋同林、桂大松老师的《语言概述》中提到课堂教学中使用肢体语言具有吸引学生注意力、补充口语等功能，对它的研究仍在进行中。张亦方和陈文峰老师所著的《肢体语言与外语教学》一书中介绍了肢体语言与课堂教学，特别是肢体语言在外语学科教学中的应用。胡志英老师在《让肢体语言走进小学英语课堂》中阐述了将动作运用到小学英语课堂，不但能激发孩子们对英语的学习兴趣，还能有效地提高课堂质量。
为了使肢体语言更好地应用于英语教学课堂，研究者不断地努力，推陈出新。虽然国内外对肢体语言有了整体性的研究，但缺乏肢体语言应用于课堂内，特别是英语课堂内的实证研究。
（续表）
课题研究目标及内容
研究目标：通过本课题的调查研究，了解肢体语言在农村小学英语教学中的具体应用情况，提出有价值的建议，提高教师在教学中肢体语言的使用能力，促进教学方法的改进，激发学生学习英语的兴趣，提高学习效率。
研究内容：本研究通过文献法、问卷调查法以及课堂观察法来分析肢体语言应用于小学英语课堂教学的现状，从听、说、读、写四个教学环节去调查肢体语言在农村小学英语教学中的具体应用现状，找出不足之处，进而提出改进建议。
课题研究方法及进度安排
文献法、问卷调查法、课堂观察法。
论文准备阶段（资料收集、确定题目、完成开题报告）2017.09.08—2017.09.25
论文前期阶段（资料整理、确定提纲）2017.09.27—2017.12.29
论文撰写阶段（完成初稿）2018.01.01—2018.03.23
论文撰写阶段（形成二稿、完成中期报告）2018.03.24—2018.04.20
论文完善阶段（论文定稿）2018.04.21—2018.05.31
课题研究的可行性分析和具体条件
首先本校的图书馆以及电子阅览室开通了免费查阅资料的通道，为了解国内外学者对肢体语言在教学方面的研究现状提供了便利条件。通过文献资料的研究和实地调查的分析，对本课题研究奠定了重要的基础。其次顶岗支教的实践活动为本课题的研究提供了重要的调查环境。指导老师给与的建议也及时地为课题的研究提供了帮助。
参考文献
Allen, L. Q. Function of Nonverbal Communication in Teaching and Leaning a Foreign Language[J]. TheFrench Review, 1999(3).
Hall, E. T. The Silent Language[M]. Washington: Anchor Books, 1977.
Shen Minxian. The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1999.
Smith, Howard A. Nonverbal Behavior Aspects of Teaching in Nonverbal Behavior[M]. New York: C.J. Hogrefe, 1984.
潘永梁.多维度的身势语研究[J].外语与翻译,1999(4).
张亦方,陈文锋.肢体语言与外语教学[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2003.
志翔.谈正确运用体态语言优化英语教学[J].辽宁商务职业学院学报,2002(4).
庄锦英,李振树.教师体态语艺术[M].济南:山东教育出版社,2000.
邹志琼.教师的身体语言及其在教学中的作用[J].教学研究,2006(10).
指导教师意见：
指导教师签名：
年月日
注：1. 本表可根据内容续页；2. 指导教师意见及签名手写，其他内容电子版填写。
第五章提纲撰写的规范与要求
第五章提纲撰写的规范与要求
在对收集的资料做研究、做笔记的同时，研究者就会不自觉地在心中形成论文的框架。然后，就会为自己的“工程”描绘一张蓝图，这便是论文提纲。给论文列提纲很有必要，也很有好处。它有助于论文作者对论文作全盘考虑，估计出论文的每一部分和其他部分的关系，从而明白自己的论述是如何按逻辑发展的。
提纲对论文的重要性就像图纸对建筑师一样，有了提纲，有了资料，就好比有了骨架，也有了血肉，接下来就是合理布局的事情了。对于本科生来说，拟写提纲的过程就是构思论文的过程，提纲越详尽，就会对论文写作越有利，通过理顺各论据与论题之间的关系来增强论文的条理性、逻辑性和完整性。
列提纲需要：决定论点句、选择提纲类型、选择提纲格式。
一、决定论点句
1. 论点句的概念
给论文列提纲时，要把手头的资料形成一个统一连贯的整体。这一步可以用拟论点句(thesis statement)的方法来实现。何谓论点句？论点句就是用来概括论文的中心思想，阐述自己的论题和观点的一个句子，它是从众多材料中提炼出来的。“写好论点句能使作者把握好论文的走向，筹划和写作论文时能够保持富有成效的行动路线”（Gibaldi，2001: 35）。按照英美的传统和常规，论点句要放在论文引言部分第一段的末尾。尤其是初学写论文的人务必这样做，等到完全掌握了写论文的技巧后才能随心所欲。例如：
As a masterpiece in English literature Jane Eyre establishes itself in the world. It successfully portrays a brave, independent, intellectual lady Jane Eyre with the spirit of equality. During the time of 1800s, the period in which Jane Eyre was written and the setting of the novel was provided, women were stereotyped as being “submissive, dependent, beautiful but ignorant”. They were seen only as trophies, meant t cling to the arms of men, but never meant to develop a mind of their own or to venture out on their own. This stereotype proved it difficult for women to be thought of highly. Dissatisfied with this interpretation of her sex, Bronte attempted to change it by creating a heroine who possessed the antithesis of these traits. Indeed, Jane may be a plain woman but she is an intelligent one: she is also selfconfident, strongminded and morally conscious. She not only trusts in her ability to make decisions, but also in her freedom to do so. Such traits will be necessary to guide her in her journey to selffulfillment. Jane Eyre overcomes many obstacles and shows that it is possible for a woman in the 19th century to achieve independence and freedom on her own, no matter what odds are against her.
这个例子中，黑体的句子就是论点句，它就在本段的最后一句。只要读完第一段，就会明白作者在整篇论文中要论述的中心思想是什么，同时也能够知道读者寄希望于作者在这篇论文中做什么。同时，把论点句放在第一段末尾也可以使作者避免绕弯子，把引言写得太长的毛病，这一点对中国学生特别有用。
2. 论点句的拟定
如何拟定论点句呢？或者说，论点句来自哪里？其实，它就来自研究者的心中。把自己记录在文摘卡上的内容认真研究总结，就会想出论点句了。事实上，在获取论点句的时候，就在设法找出概括收集的有关学科材料的中心思想了。
比如，某同学选定《格林童话》和《安徒生童话》为自己的研究课题。该同学仔细阅读了自己文摘卡上的内容后发现格林童话和安徒生童话既有相似之处，又有相异之处，而且还发现相似之处在童话中太普遍了，不好论述。于是，该同学把论点集中在格林童话和安徒生童话的不同点上。特别是，她发现二者的不同点在素材来源、艺术手法、童话内容和负面影响四方面表现得最为明显。因此，她把自己的研究成果写成了论点句中：
Both Grimms and Andersons fairytales bring happiness to people; however, they have differences in source, art, content, and negative influence.
这样，该论点句如其措辞所述，确切、具体地说明了作者在论文中要做的事，以及她所需要的有关材料内容。首先，她要说明这两种童话如何给人们，尤其是给儿童带来快乐，这点包括在引言段里。然后，她把论文的正文分成四部分来论证自己的四项主张。这就是说，作者要引用权威观点，引用童话原文，对格林童话和安徒生童话的素材来源、艺术手法、童话内容和对人们的影响进行评论来说明二者的不同。
所以，拟定论点句的过程就是提出一个与论题有关的重要问题，然后寻找答案的过程。问题的答案即为探索研究的起点，或使论点具体化的起点，最终会成为论点的具体表达形式。
3. 论点句的功能
论点句决定着作者写作的明确方向，它至少有三种功能：
（1） 使作者恪守主题。人们在写作时往往会从一个主题转向另一个主题，如果心中有一个明确的论点句的话，就不会漫无目的地离题乱写了。比如：
Indeed, cosmological beliefs of the Renaissance are inseparably part of Shakespeares ideas about the earth, the universe and human emotions.
（2） 让作者知道如何扩展论文，即用什么方法，分几部分来写。比如：
The novel exposes Tess inevitable tragedy which is caused by social injustice and economic oppression, sexual discrimination and bourgeois hypocrisy, and the innocence in her character.
（3） 能引起读者的期待感。如果论点句措辞得当，就会激发读者对论文内容的强烈兴趣。比如：
Imagery, which is very important and indispensable in poetry, has three functions into which this paper will probe respectively.
4. 论点句的措辞原则
如果想让自己的论点句有效、实用，就必须用适当的措辞来表达。论点句应该是清楚明了、直截了当、容易理解，使作者的行动方向、论述方式和思想观点不会被误解。下面是拟写论点句的几条原则：
（1） 唯一的论点句
在一篇论文中，一个论点就足够作者研究和写作的，如果一个论点句包含好几个论点的话，那么大的任务根本不可能完成。比如：
Jane Eyre seeks to disprove the stereotype of women in the 19th century and overcomes all obstacles she encounters in her struggle to achieve independence and freedom on her own, no matter what odds are against her.
这是个二元论点句，它要竭力把论文纳入两个相反的方向。就是说，它要迫使写这篇论文的同学去论述两个论点：一方面要证明“俯首帖耳、听天由命、漂亮但却无知”的女人是错误的；另一方面要提供理由来支持为取得独立自由而奋斗的简·爱。该同学之所以拟出这样的一个论点句，是因为在收集资料做文摘卡时，她同时面对收集了有关19世纪传统女性的内容和有关简·爱在斗争中遇到的种种障碍的内容。该同学舍不得忍痛割爱，哪一方面也舍不得丢弃，就把二者放在一起写出了这样的论说句。经过与指导老师沟通、修改，该同学改进了论点句，写成了：
Jane Eyre overcomes many obstacles and shows that it is possible for a women in the 19th century to achieve independence and freedom on her own, no matter what odds are against her.
这样，该论点句就只包含了唯一的论点，论文就好写多了。
（2） 肯定的论点句
论点句要写成肯定句。如果将其写成疑问句，它就不会给论文指出必须要实现的强制性课题。这样，作者就会无所适从。比如：
What difference exists between the novel Lord of the Flies and the realistic novels?
这样的论点句既没有指明方向，也没有提供方法，也不能引起读者的期盼心理。下面是改进的论点句：
Different from the realistic novels, the novel Lord of the Flies is a unique modern allegory: it possesses an antitraditional thematic content and uses a realistic narrative method.
其中的命题是肯定的。这样，有关该命题的论文对作者来说就好写了，对读者来说也有了盼头。
（3） 如实的语言
在拟写论点句的时候，要用准确的词语和词语的本意，而不能用比喻性语言。因为比喻性语言模糊不清，拐弯抹角，不可能给论文作出明确的陈述。比如：
Lu Xun is the Chinese Shakespeare.
用这样的句子用作论点句的话，作者就不会明确要论述什么。读者也不会清楚论文的中心思想。
（4） 明确的措辞
论点句中的内容必须明白、清晰、不含糊。反过来说就是不能用含糊其辞的词语来拟写论点句。虽然含糊的词语能把读者的胃口吊起来，但它们不能提供明确的内容。因此，你就不会明白你写论文的方向是什么。比如：
Imagery has functions in poetry.
这个句子没有说明诗歌意象到底有什么作用或几种功能，作者无法论述。所以，这样的内容含糊，模棱两可，不能做论点句。可以修改为：
Imagery, which is very important and indispensable in poetry, has three functions: productive, constructive, and aesthetic.
（5） 简要的表达
论点句要尽量写得简明扼要。有些同学用凌乱、笨重、拖沓的句子做论点句，比如：
Imagery is the product of imagination, as one of the most common terms in modern criticism and the most general and variable in meaning covers verbal and nonverbal description of objects, actions, state of mind and any sensory, extrasensory experiences; what is the functions of image in poetry, I will probe it from three aspects.
该同学不仅混淆了一些概念，犯了一些语法错误，而且堆砌了许多无意义的词语，使句子冗长又拖沓，使论题满面开花，把作者自己也会搞糊涂。读者读到这样的论点句只会不知作云。
需要注意的是，有些论文没有论点句，而用目的句来代替。如：
The purpose of this experiment was to examine the reliability and validity of the taskbased approach to English reading teaching at a new type of schools in China—high vocational schools.
目的句总是写在引言部分最后一段的第一句或最后一句，而论点句则写在引言部分第一段的最后。论点句是概括论文的大意；而目的句是宣告作者计划做什么。一般来说，报告型论文用目的句，论题型论文用论点句。
二、拟写提纲的方法
确定了论文的中心论题，然后就需要编写论文提纲。提纲是科研论文的总规划。它像排列有序的一张表，陈列着论文必不可少的主题或主要思想的内容。提纲能帮助作者全面把握整篇论文。更为重要的是，能使作者掌握各部分之间的关联作用，理清论文的逻辑发展趋势。
硕士论文和博士论文篇幅长要求用目录，学士论文篇幅短要求用提纲。
拟写提纲时一般先摆出论点（thesis statement），再将全文分为若干章节，大致由引言（introduction）、论文主体（body）和结语（conclusion）三部分构成。引言主要是提出论点或引出论题；论文的主体部分围绕论点进行论证分析和立论；结语部分总结全文，重申论点。引言和结论不宜过长，可自成一段，如有必要也可不止一段。但论文正文部分必须分成若干章节，每一个章节需有分论点。
一般来说，提纲应该体现论文的论点问题。论文的论点是整篇论文的要旨所在。没有论点，论文就失去了论述的意义。那么总论点如何提出，分论点如何围绕总论点展开论述，提纲都要详细地安排好。下面列举几种处理总论点和分论点的关系的方式：
1. 总分式： 根据总分的安排不同，又可分为演绎式和归纳式。前者先总后分，后者先分后总。在撰写教学法方向的论文时，便可采取这两种方法，演绎法用于定量分析法，即以假设为出发点，用数据和实验验证已有的假设；而归纳法则适用于定性分析法，即以观察材料为出发点，通过个案研究发现规律和模式。
2. 并列式： 指分论点从不同角度阐述中心论点，在形式和内容上不分主次。比如要论述委婉语的社会功能，作者就可将其分为禁忌功能、礼貌功能、粉饰功能和幽默功能几个方面，分别加以论述。
3. 递进式： 指的是分论点层层深入展开论述。比如一篇关于中国菜肴名称的文化含义的文章，首先分析菜肴名称的基本特点，揭示其蕴含的文化含义，继而凸现出菜名文化含义日益复杂的问题，从而提出菜肴的命名应遵从文化的可译性和可接受性，以使更多的外国游客更好地了解中国的饮食文化。
4. 对比或对照式： 就是针对可比的某些方面突出所比事物的相同点或相异点，以便更好地阐明论点。比如，有关比较译学的文章就可以采取这种结构，通过比较两个或多个诗歌译本对诗歌形式标记（格律、形式、句法、词汇和修辞）和非形式标记（诗人气质和作品意境、主题等）的处理，分析怎样才能实现诗歌的风格再现。
5. 因果论证式： 通常先提出问题，接着分析问题产生的原因，最后，提出解决问题的办法。例如教学法方面关于“学困生”、学习焦虑等的课题，都可以采用因果顺序。
6. 时间接续式： 顾名思义，要对某一事物的缘起、发展、完善等过程层层铺陈。比如对一系列政治、历史、社会等事件或某些学术理论的发展状况的论述。
当然在一篇论文中论点的安排方式并不是单一和互相矛盾的。某些深刻复杂的问题需要将几种结构综合到一起才能对总论点进行较为透彻有力的论证。这里提供的论点的论述方式在应用到实际的论文写作中时还要针对不同论题具体问题具体分析，灵活安排。
三、选择提纲的格式
英语科研论文的提纲有两种基本格式：一种是数字字母格式，就是字母和数字交替使用的方式（standard outline），一种是小数点格式（decimal outline）。
如果用数字字母格式，传统惯例要求用罗马数字表示一级标题，用英语大写字母表示二级标题，用阿拉伯数字表示三级标题，用英语小写字母表示四级标题。下面是提纲的正确格式：
I. Major heading
A. Minor heading
1. Detail heading
a. Example heading
b. Example heading
(1) Minor example heading
(2) Minor example heading
2. Detail heading
B. Minor heading
II. Major heading
如果用小数点格式，就用0，1，2，3，4，5，6，7，8，9十个阿拉伯数字和小数点表示提纲中所有的主次级别。这种格式可以是缩进式，也可以是齐头式。
缩进式小数点提纲格式如下：
1. Major heading
1.1Minor heading
1.1.1Detail heading
1.1.2Detail heading
1.1.1.1Example heading
1.1.1.2Example heading
1.2Minor heading
2. Major heading
齐头式小数点提纲格式如下：
1. Main Idea
1.1Sub idea
1.2Sub idea
1.2.1Example of sub ideas
1.2.2Example of sub ideas
1.2.2.1Detail
1.2.2.2Detail
2. Main Idea
无论哪一种提纲格式，大家一定要注意以下几点：
1. 要注意论文论点的逻辑排序问题，章节的分类要严格按照逻辑顺序进行，否则便是一盘散沙，令读者一头雾水；
2. 同一层次的章节必须至少保证两个项目或两个条目，否则便无任何排序的意义；
3. 大学本科级别的科研论文提纲一般分为三级或四级标题。
四、选择提纲的类型
论文提纲主要有三种类型：主题提纲、句子提纲和段落提纲。
1. 主题提纲（topic outline）：主题提纲，又称题目提纲，提纲中所有条目不是用完整的句子写，而是用名词性词组，包括名词、名词短语、动名词（短语）或动词不定式（短语）写成的。换句话说，如果你在一个条目中用的是名词词组，那么在所有的条目中都必须用名词词组。这就是说，要把题材分成若干个小标题，每个小标题都用名词词组来写。主题提纲适用于相对简单的题材。
2. 句子提纲（sentence outline）：句子提纲要求用完整的句子写所有条目。全部句子都应该用肯定陈述句。句子提纲特别适合于复杂的题材，因为详尽的条目能够给予作者论文的概观。
3. 段落提纲（paragraph outline）：段落提纲中每一个条目都是由连贯的句子组成的完整段落。实际上，段落提纲就是一篇科研论文的浓缩版或雏形。要写长篇论文或专著时这种形式的提纲非常有用，因为作者可以把每一部分或每一章的内容概括成一整段，它能给作者和读者提供论文或专著的全部要点。但是，段落提纲不适用于大学本科论文。
为了让大家对上述三种类型的提纲做一比较，下面我们用“同一论文、三种形式”做展示。（材料来源Anthony C. Winkler & Jo Ray McCuenMetherell, Writing the Reserch Paper, 7th edition, 2014）
主题提纲：
I. The ambiguity of the real Rasputin
A. His birth
B. Popular historical view
1. His supporters
2. His detractors
II. Rasputins religious feelings
A. His vitality and exuberance
B. His simple peasant faith
III. Rasputins desire for peace in Russia
A. His concern for the Russian underdog
1. His loyalty to the peasantry
2. His opposition to antiSemitism
B. His opposition to all wars
IV. Rasputins gentle, compassionate side
A. His kindness to the Romanovs
B. His love for family
句子提纲：
I. The real Rasputin is difficult to discover.
A. The birth of Rasputin coincided with a shooting star.
B. The popular historical view of Rasputin portrays him as primarily evil.
1. Supporters called him a spiritual leader.
2. Detractors called him a satyr and charged that his depraved faithful were merely in awe of his sexual endowments.
II. Rasputin had intense religious feelings.
A. He was both vital and exuberant.
B. He had a simple peasant faith in God.
III. Rasputins passionate desire for peace in Russia revealed itself in several ways.
A. He was concerned for the Russia underdog.
1. He wanted to tsar who would stand up for the peasantry.
2. He spoke out boldly against antiSemitism.
B. Because of his humanitarian spirit, he was opposed to all wars.
1. Rasputin had a gentle, compassionate side.
2. He showed great kindness to the Romanovs.
3. Maria Rusputin tells of her fathers love for his family.
段落提纲：
I. Rasputin himself always attached great significance to the fact that at the time of his birth, a shooting star was seen streaking across the horizon. He considered the phenomenon to be an omen that he was fated to have influence and special powers. The poplar historical view of Rasputin paints him primarily as evil. In his day, however, he attracted numerous supporters, who thought of him as their spiritual leader. But he also had many detractors who called him a satyr and accused his followers of sexual depravity.
II. Rasputin had intense religious feelings. He was so filled with vitality and exuberance that he could stay awake until the early hours of the morning, dancing and drinking in frenzied religious fervor. He did not have the theology of a sophisticated church cleric; instead he expressed his religion in the simple terms of a Russian peasant.
III. Rasputins passionate desire for peace in Russia revealed itself in several ways. For instance, he was concerned for the Russian underdogs, for the peasants and the Jews, always encouraging the tsar to protect these unfortunate groups. And, his humanitarian and pacifist nature made him a determined opponent of all wars.
IV. Rasputin had a gentle, compassionate side. He was completely devoted to the tsars family and was known to have had a calming influence on the hemophiliac son of the tsar. Maria Rusputin gives a glowing report of her fathers kindness and love.
关于提纲的类型，大家要注意下面几个问题：
1. 提纲的行文层次要明晰。也就是说，处在第一层面的主要论点要互相对应，处在第二层面的次要论点要互相对应，处在第三层面的事例说明要互相对应。
2. 同一个论点提纲中的纲目不可有词组和句子混用现象。不能把几种提纲混合起来或结合起来使用，只能单独用其中的一种。
3. 采用主题提纲，提纲的每个条目都必须遵守标题的大写规则或首词大写规则，需将每个单词的首字母大写。采用句子提纲只需将句首的第一个字母大写即可，提纲末尾要用句号（也可用问号或叹号）。
4. 提纲写好后，还要对提纲进一步进行推敲和修改。目的主要是看题目是否恰当；结构是否符合逻辑；层次是否清晰，是否合乎道理；层次段落之间联系是否紧密，过渡是否自然。最后，再进行总体布局的检查修改，结合文章结构，对每一层次中的论述秩序进行调整。
提纲的产生是一个反复酝酿的过程，它和选题、搜集材料、分析材料一样，都是撰写研究论文前“研究”工作的一部分。提纲的酝酿其实从选定论文题目时就已经开始了。详尽的提纲将直接指导今后的工作，成为指导论文写作的有效工具。
第六章摘要写作的方法与要求
第六章摘要写作的方法与要求
前一章我们学习了如何在论文撰写之前列出详细规范的论文提纲，这一章我们将学习如何编写符合要求的论文摘要。按照惯例，摘要一般在初稿完成后才着手撰写。因为只有论文完成后，才可能对论文有一个整体把握，才能对其进行归纳总结。
那么，如何编写摘要呢？简单来说，三个步骤：首先，通读理解全文，整体上把握文章主题。通过前言、结语，掌握论文背景和结果，并通过各章节标题熟悉论文结构，反复阅读后把握有价值的内容。然后，摘录论文内容中的要点。要点是指整篇论文的重点和创新点，其中结果和结论是最重要的。最后，反复通读修改，力求摘要内容完整、符合逻辑、语言流畅。
一、摘要的概念与功能
摘要是简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。主要特点是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释。摘要又称概要、内容提要。
国家标准GB771387指出：“学位论文应附有摘要，为了国际交流，还应有外文（多用英文）摘要。”我国大部分高校都要求英语专业的学生撰写毕业论文摘要，其作用是对所写论文进行简要概述。因此，摘要具有独立性和自明性，虽篇幅短，但须拥有与论文同等量的主要信息。也就是说，即便不阅读论文全文，也能获得关于论文的必要信息。具体来说，摘要具有以下功能：
1. 摘要能帮助读者在细读论文前对全文先有一个整体把握，从而更好、更准确地掌握理解全文的内容。
2. 摘要能帮助部分读者用较少的时间掌握论文中提供的重要信息。目前环境下，科技文献信息浩如烟海，检索到论文题名后，读者主要是通过阅读摘要来判断是否会阅读全文，因此，摘要担负着吸引读者和将文章主要内容介绍给读者的任务。
3. 摘要为文摘索引之类的检索期刊和情报部门提供一个资料源。
二、摘要的类别
1. 概要型摘要（generalizing abstracts）：一般是概括出论文的主题、文中的主要论点及结论，多用于理论性较强的研究论文。
2. 描述型摘要（descriptive abstracts）：一般是按照目录对全文内容的一个提纲契领式的扼要描述，多用于技术研究报告性论文。
3. 信息型摘要（informative abstracts）：除介绍论文的要旨和要点外，一般还要列出有关的实验（调查）结果、所得出的具体数据、所采用的方法以及准确度、可信度分析等。用有限的字数向读者提供尽可能多的信息，充分反映该研究结果的创新之处。多用于实验（调查）类研究论文或技术性较强的研究报告。
目前，英语专业毕业论文的摘要多采用两种类型（概括型和信息型）或三种类型相结合的综合形式。
三、摘要的撰写
摘要是整篇文章的缩影，其内容应能反映整篇文章的主旨。摘要的内容应以简短的方式述明整个研究之来龙去脉与结果，包括写作的目的、写作的方法、研究的结果以及所得之结论等等。因此，摘要中不能出现含有历史背景，新旧信息以及未来研究的构想和与本文无关的观点、看法等内容。
一般来说，毕业论文摘要的字数要求在120个英语单词或200个汉字左右，不分段。篇幅最长不超过一页，所占比例应在全文的10%以下。
尽管摘要的具体内容因所选专业和论题而异，其各组成部分的撰写格式还是有一定的规律可循的。摘要部分比较短，又需要概括出论文中所有的重要论点，因此需要使用标志性的句子来增强效果。按照论文 “引言—主体—结语”的框架，摘要可分为“主题句—主体句—结束句”完成。具体如下：
1. 主题句（topic sentence）
摘要的第一句话往往开门见山，直奔主题，提出研究目的和对象。常用句式如下：
The purpose of this paper is...
The primary goal of this research is...
This paper discusses (studies, concerns, deals with)...
This paper argues (demonstrates)...
This paper explores (probes into, elaborates on)...
In this paper, the author attempts to (intends to, proposes, contends, points out, argues)...
The chief aim of the present work is to investigate the features of...
This paper makes a comparison of (an overview of, an analysis of)...
Based on (Centering around)..., this paper is to review (prove, illustrate)...
The work presented in this paper focuses on several aspects of...
The overall objective of this study is...
The intention of this paper is to survey...
The problem we have outlined deals largely with the study of...
With recent research, the author intends to outline the framework of...
The author attempted the set of experiments with a view of demonstrating certain phenomena...
The emphasis of this study lies in...
2. 主体句（supporting sentence）
在概述了论题后，接下来要进一步涉及研究方法、实验过程、调查或论证分析等具体内容，以此来填充骨架。常用的句式如下：
The method used in our study is known as...
The technique we have applied is referred to as...
The procedurethey followed can be briefly described as...
The approach adopted extensively is called...
Detailed information has been acquired by the authors using...
The research has recorded valuable data using the newly developed method.
The underlyingprinciple of the theory is as follows.
The underlying concept of this theory is...
This is a working theory which is based on the idea that...
The fundamental features of this theory are as follows.
The theory is characterized by...
The experimentconsisted of three steps, which is described in...
We have carried out several experiments to test the validity of...
Recent experiments in this area have suggested that...
Examples with actual experiment demonstrate...
Special mention is given here to...
The test equipment which was used consisted of...
A number of experiments were performed to check...
Included in the experiment were...
3. 结束句（ending sentence）
摘要相当于一篇微观论文，其结束句的功能也类似本论中的结论，需要阐明结果、说明应用、点明意义或引发反思。其常用的句式如下：
In conclusion, we state that ...
In summing up it may be stated that...
Therefore, it can be concluded that...
The results of the experiment indicated that...
The studies we have performed showed that...
The investigation carried out by ...has revealed that...
All our preliminary results throw light on the nature of...
This fruitful work gives explanation of...
These findings of the research have led the author to a conclusion that...
Finally, the paper reflects on the current situation pertaining to...
The results show (or suggests that)...
It is concluded that...
The research work has brought about a discovery of...
The data obtained appear to be very similar to those reported earlier by...
The author has satisfactorily come to the conclusion that...
Finally, a summary is given of...
下面我们举例看看一篇完整的摘要是怎样将上述要点化零为整的：
This study examines crosscultural contrastive rhetoric in argumentative writing. [主题句] To achieve this purpose, 50 Chinese students from Beijing Institute of Machinery and 30 English students from Exeter University in Great Britain are asked to write an English essay on an assigned topic. In addition, Chinese students are asked to write a Chinese essay on the same writing task. [主体句] The data suggests that L1 Chinese writings are significantly different from L1 English writing in two of selected rhetorical features, e.g. type of the discussed problem and affective appeal. Both English and Chinese students demonstrate similar strategies in terms of the orientation length and citation. Chinese students tend to display similar rhetorical strategies in both L1 and L2 writings. [结束句]
（材料来源：李正栓，焦绘宏主编，英语专业本科毕业论文设计与写作指导，2014）
下面我们换另一种方式讨论如何撰写摘要，正如Slade & Perrin 所写:“An abstract should explain the project rather than defend or evaluate it. It should begin with the most important information, which usually will be the conclusions or findings, followed by a brief but precise statement of the problems; a description of the research method and design of the study, if applicable; and the significance of your conclusions. The keywords and most important terminology, unabbreviated, should appear in the abstract.” (2011: 38)
从上述表述可以得出，摘要依据“引言—主体—结语”的框架，依次提出论文研究的问题、研究目的，描述研究的方法或过程，并概括研究的主要发现及其意义，最后归纳研究的结论。我们可以把它概括为“5A策略”，也就是说，摘要应该回答这五个问题：
Q1: What is the general knowledge of your topic in the academic field?
Q2: Whatresearch topic is the paper to focus on?
Q3: What method or material do you use to support your main point of view?
Q4: What conclusion will you draw?
Q5: What is the main contribution of the paper?
比如：
Modern management is essentially about managing people as well as processes in a rapidly changing environment. The author presents the factors which make “strategic management” effective. A dominant factor is the organization climate which, in turn, is determined by the quality of the managers and the availability of alternatives. To improve the organization climate in which strategic management can be effective, the quality of the managers is a crucial factor. The scope for alternatives also proves an important constraint. The author suggests that the assessment of effects for management should include the use of consultants and the role of formal procedure. It is concluded that the correct judgment and optimal operation of the essential factors will enhance the effectiveness of strategic management in general.
这个摘要很好地展示了“5A策略”。作者开篇展示了论文的研究领域，提到了研究背景。然后作者通过提到 “strategic management” 的有效因素，引出自己的研究课题。通过展示 “the organization climate” 和 “the quality of managers” 的重要性，作者转向“the scope to alternatives”，也就是具体的研究方法。最后两句作者回答了研究结果和结论的问题。（资料来源：胡庚申主编，英语论文写作与发表，2000）
再给大家展示一个摘要：
Both literary stylistic and linguistic approaches have failed to recognize the nature of fiction translation. The paper intends to explore the nature of fiction translation and to discuss the necessity of introducing the sociosemiotic approach to translation of fiction. The applicability of the sociosemiotic approach to translation of fiction is examined in two aspects:theory basis and translation practice. It is proved that, today, the sociosemiotic approach is the best and most comprehensive one to study translation of fiction, and it is hoped that more fictional translators would come to the field of sociosemiotics, a field not only offering applicable theory to translation of fiction but also providing sophisticated method to translation of fiction criticism.
上面这篇摘要来自 “The Sociosemiotic Approach and Translation of Fiction” 一文，相当标准，含有了摘要应有的要素： “Both literary stylistic and linguistic approaches have failed to recognize the nature of fiction translation.” 简明扼要地提出了论文研究的问题； “The paper intends to explore...The applicability of the sociosemiotic approach to translation of fiction is examined in two aspects: theory basis and translation practice.” 是对论文研究方法与方式的描写； “It is proved that...but also providing sophisticated method to translation of fiction criticism.”体现了研究的结果、意义和结论。
从上面几个摘要可以看出，导言、研究目的在学术论文摘要中不应缺少, 其作用主要是说明作者写论文的目的或论文主要解决的问题。一篇好的摘要，开篇就应该把本文目的或要解决的主要问题明确交代清楚，可以用goal， aim， purpose等词来表示。
研究方法是对研究过程的描述，作用是告诉读者研究中使用了何种方法, 如实验研究法、文献研究法等，一般在导言之后。若是应用语言学的研究, 往往要包括背景、研究工具（诸如问卷、访谈、试卷、观察表）和数据收集等。
结果和结论部分代表毕业论文的主要成就，论文有无价值，价值有多大，主要取决于你所获得的结果。如果有必要，在结尾部还可将论文的结果结论和他人研究结果比较，突出论文的主要贡献及独到之处。
需要注意的是，英语专业毕业论文属社会科学范畴，不同于自然科学论文，后者必须包含四个要素，缺一不可。论文摘要中省略哪些要素，应视实际情况而定。一般来说，论文中研究背景和对研究过程的描述若着墨过多，就会抓不住论文要点。而结果和结论部分是论文重点，也是最重要的观点和内容。
四、摘要的语言风格
毕业论文摘要属学术文体，语言风格应属于学术文体风格，也就是通常在学术论文中表现出来的语言风格。毕业论文的语言风格大家要遵循 “正式、客观、简洁”的原则。
1. 正式
学术文体要求语言正式，有一点大家应该记住：正式文体一般不使用缩写词，诸如 doesnt, hasnt等缩写形式是不可以使用的。
例如：The previous research doesnt explain the reasons why...；
This hasnt been explored...
2. 客观
学术文体要求语言客观，使用学术论文几乎不使用第一人称。
本科毕业生的论文摘要中，客观问题较为普遍的是使用“In my opinion”， “I think” 等主观表达方式。
过去论文摘要中，首句多使用第三人称如 “This paper...”等开篇，现在人们更倾向于采用简洁的被动语态或原形动词开头，例如：“To describe...”，“To study...”，“To investigate...”，“To assess...”，“To determine...”等。
3. 简洁
摘要因受到字数的限制，文字一定要简洁，否则读者宁愿选择阅读论文的一些重要章节。而且，罗嗦冗长的摘要也违背了它的写作目的。所以，摘要写作时，大家一定要搞明白，哪些是最重要的，哪些是必须包含在内的，哪些是可以舍弃的。比如“The significance of context was not recognized until the 1950s B. Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, raised the concept and discussed it in a detailed way. After that, more and more attention has been paid to it.”一例中，关于Malinowski的介绍就有点多余，完全可以舍弃。
五、摘要写作中应注意的问题
英语专业论文摘要结合论文的特点，应注意以下几个方面：
1. 摘要从内容上要全面涵盖论文的重点。要避免空洞无物或过于笼统的论述和结论，要尽量利用论文中的最具体化的语言来阐述自己的方法、过程、结论。
2. 语言要简明扼要，提纲挈领。要字斟句酌，提高摘要中文字的信息含量，去掉多余的句、词，不可重复标题。如果重复标题中已有的信息，就会导致信息价值降低，可读性差。不要照搬论文正文中小标题或论文的部分文字。
3. 句式既要规范，又要灵活运用。摘要慎用长句，句型应力求简单。
4. 要使用正确的时态形式，即除了描述实验（调查）行为时采用过去时外，一般均应使用一般现在时或现在完成时。
5. 要使用合适的语态。摘要中采用何种语态，要视情况而认定，也就是说既要考虑到摘要的特点，又要满足表达的需要。现在主张一般应使用动词的主动语态。
6. 避免把摘要写成引言。摘要与引言的功能和作用不同，所以，二者的写法是不同的。摘要是概括陈述论文的主要内容、研究目的、研究手段等，主要起综述和检索的作用。引言是要简要说明研究课题的背景、目的、意义、范围、方法及预期结果等，主要是提出问题为正文部分展开论述服务。
7. 摘要应该客观如实反映论文基本信息，避免发表带有主观倾向的见解、解释或评论。“填补了空白”“具有世界领先地位”“具有指导作用”等词语均属于评价性语言。例如，“本文运用体裁分析理论，全面系统地分析英文摘要的体裁特点，为科研工作者提供了实用可行的英文摘要写作模式和方法”中，“全面系统”和“实用可行”均属评价性语言，应去掉。
8. 摘要要求结构严谨，语义确切，表达简明，要按逻辑顺序来安排，句子之间要上下连贯，互相呼应。
9. 摘要中要使用规范的名词术语，不用非公知公用的符号和术语。一般不用数学公式、表格或示意图。不要列举例证，不写过程。
10. 由于摘要不属于论文的正文部分，所以按照MLA格式它不编写页码，也就不算作论文的一个页码。
六、关键词的确定
关键词是用来进行计算机检索摘要用的，读者看过摘要后就能决定是否需要阅读保存在教育主管部门档案里或刊登在期刊上的整篇论文了。
关键词是能精确概括论文中心内容的词或短语，单独列于摘要底端。如果我们说摘要是浓缩的论文，那么关键词就是这浓缩的论文中提炼出来的精华。一般来说，关键词就是文章中提到的关键的术语，是表述论文中心内容有实质意义的词语。
关键词一般从论文题目、摘要和论文正文中选取。要选择那些直指中心论题，论文中出现频率最高的、起到核心作用的、具有代表性的术语作为关键词。
关键词大多选择名词形式，字数一般在4～6个字之间，限制在2～10个之内，本科毕业论文以3～5个关键词为宜。各个关键词（含英语词组）之间用逗号或分号隔开，依次排列，行末不用句号。英语关键词的首字母不必大写。中英文关键词要一一对应。
关键词的顺序该如何排列呢？一般的规律是：如果大小比较明显，则按照关键词的内涵“从大到小”的规则排列。如果关键词的内涵大小不明显，或者词与词之间的大小缺乏可比性，那就按照在论文中出现的先后顺序，或者按照习惯表达的先后顺序来排列。关键词之间不要重复，不要把句子写成关键词。在不影响词义的前提下，关键词应该尽量精炼，选择最小化的词单位。
例如：一篇题为 “The Translation Canon and the Literary Canon”的论文，其摘要和关键词如下：
Abstract: The paper conducts a preliminary investigation into the relationships between canonical works of translation and the literary canon in order to highlight the impact of the translation canon on the literary canon. The author argues that it is only through translation that a literary work of one country can become a classical work of another country. Through a case study of Chinese classical poems, the author shows how a literary work can gain rebirth through a translation that is rich in intertextual association. Finally, the paper reflects on the current situation pertaining to the translation for modern Chinese literary works—a situation which provides much food for thought.
Key words: canon; translation; literature; poetry; intertexuality
从上述例子可以看出，关键词的提取离不开论文的题目，因为题目是全文主旨的高度凝缩，起着高屋建瓴的作用。上面例子中有的关键词直接取自题目，其余关键词都是摘要中明显或隐含的重要信息。由此可见，关键词、论文标题和摘要中的论题是高度一致的。
第七章毕业论文的类型与结构
第七章毕业论文的类型与结构
在这一章中，我们将介绍毕业论文的主要类型以及论文中各部分的一些常用写法。
一、毕业论文的主要类型
1. 依据内容，毕业论文可以分为文学类、语言及语言研究类、翻译研究类、文化研究类等类型。这个我们在选题内容里讲过，在此就不详细展开了。
2. 依据性质和内容，毕业论文主要可分为研究报告型（reports）和论证（争辩）型（argumentative papers）两大类。
研究报告型论文是通过调查、测试、实验获得第一手数据，再对这些数据进行归纳、整理、分析、研究、讨论，之后得出结论或者提出建设性意见的论文形式。另有一些报告型论文也只对调查、测试、实验的目标方法、步骤结果做出客观描述与记录，让读者做出自己的判断。
英语专业的研究报告型论文通常有两类：一类是调查报告；一类是测试报告。
调查报告是指根据预定目标，采用一定方法（instruments），按照一定步骤，对调查对象（subjects）进行调查（或者统计）并对调查（或者统计）结果进行描述、记录、归纳、总结、分析、研究等的一种具有报告性质的论文形式。例如，可采用口头访问和书面问卷的方法，对学生学习英语动机进行分析、研究、调查和报告，也可以对学生使用英语词典的情况进行分析、研究、调查和报告，也可以对英语专业大学毕业生的专业知识、综合素质或者就业状况进行分析、研究、调查和报告，等等。
测试报告是根据预设目标，采取一定方法，按照一定步骤，对测试对象（subjects）进行测试，后对测试结果进行归纳、总结、研究、分析的一种具有报告性质的论文形式。例如，用自行研发的测试题（卷）对特定的学生进行单项语言技能（包括听、说、读、写、译）或交流、交际能力的测试并做出报告。
论证型论文是以批评分析或哲学理论思辨为基础，是作者在对文献资料进行综合分析研究的基础上，进而提出自己的新观点、新看法，然后逐一加以分析论证的一种研究论文形式。这种新观点和新看法，既可以是作者的新发现（或新视角）， 也可以是对传统看法或结论的修正与补充，还可以是对某种权威或流行看法的争辩。此类论文要求作者提出的论点是科学的，所提供的依据是充足、可信的，所得出的结论是新颖并且有说服力的。而要做到这些，作者必须具有较为深厚的理论功底、对前沿学术问题的综合把握能力，以及善于发现、分析和解决问题的能力。所以，写出具有一定学术价值的论证（争辩）型论文并不是件容易的事。但如果把目标锁定在对国内外已有成果的学习、吸收、借鉴分析、研究上，那么，写出一篇具有参考价值或认识价值的论证型毕业论文对多数本科生来说，还是很有可能的。例如，能写一篇完全依据自己对某文学文本的理解来阐释某文学作品的主题的论文，就有可能成为一篇有一定新意和价值的论证型论文。
3. 依据目的和性质，毕业论文大致可分为理论型研究论文（theoretical papers）和应用型研究论文（applicative papers）两大类。
理论型研究论文指的是以理论研究为实质目的的论文，主要针对语言、文学、翻译、文化等学科领域中的理论问题（如不完备、不确切、未涉猎的地方）进行研究探讨、分析与论证，并进行必要的改进、补充与完善。理论型研究课题具有理论性、学术性、创新性等特点，一是要求学生有较好的理论准备，二是能熟练运用已学过的理论知识，正确、科学地分析并解决与课题相关的理论性问题。因此，撰写此类论文的学生，必须具有良好的理论素质，包括具有扎实的基础理论知识、对现有观点结论进行正确评估的能力、对未来学术发展走向的把握能力，此外，在命题、研究方法和观察分析问题等方面，必须具有创新能力。
应用型研究论文指的是以实际应用为目的的论文，主要探讨已有的知识、理论、方法、原理、结论等，如何在实践中应用，其中包括对应用可能性和应用新途径的探索。英语专业是一个实践性非常强的专业，以掌握语言技能、语言知识和语言基础理论为主要学习内容。因此，英语专业学生应该以撰写应用型毕业论文为主。重点是运用所学知识理论提出并解决实践中出现的问题，做出有应用价值的结果结论。比如，学生可以分析研究听、读、说、写、译等各种语言技能技巧，也可以研究词汇、语法、文体、修辞和教学法等方面的问题课题，还可以研究第二语言学习心得、跨文化交际等方面的实际问题，为英语语言的教与学提供一定的参考。
4. 根据研究方法和研究领域，Slade 和Perrin将论文分为三类，即基于观察和实验数据的论文、批判分析或思辨推理的论文和以历史资料为依据的论文。
二、毕业论文的格式
毕业论文的结构取决于研究方法和研究领域。题目的研究领域决定论文的性质，不同的论文性质具有不同的论文结构。上面提到，Slade 和Perrin将论文分为三类，每一类论文都有各自的格式。
1. 基于观察或实验数据的论文
These based on the collection of empirical data—that is, information derived from direct observation or experience—often follow a standard format. The chapters are usually divided into five categories, corresponding to the stages of research. Although theses parts may be variously labeled, essentially they consist of an introduction, a review of literature, a presentation of the method of the investigation, a report of the findings, and a summary discussion and interpretation. (Slade & Perrin, 2011: 4243)
从上述论述可以看出，基于观察或实验数据的论文一般遵循公认的标准模式，即一篇论文由引言（introduction）、文献综述（literature review）、研究方法（research methodology）、研究结果（results）和讨论与结语（interpretation and conclusion）五个部分组成。各部分的名称表达未必完全固定，但这些基本内容一般情况下不可缺少。
引言的目的在于介绍论文想要证明的命题，必须表明所选择的研究问题是什么，以及研究这个问题的重要性和妥当性。另外，该研究可能获得的成果、选择该研究的背景也都需要在引言中予以说明。引言是对研究问题简明扼要的阐述及对其研究范畴的界定。实验性研究应作为一种假定，与相关的各种假定一起提出来。其他相关的问题可以用提问的方式提出。另外，引言还应对收集数据的时间安排和过程作出解释，并确立所进行的研究的理论体系，通常包括对该研究的假定和相关术语的定义。
文献综述是对相关研究和文献的综述，应向读者提供你的研究背景和动机。一定要注意的是，文献综述并不是将一系列著作和文章简单地罗列出来，而是应当突出最重要的研究，阐述你的研究和已有的相关研究之间的关系，并简要地说明该研究领域存在的共识和分歧。因此，综述是对已有研究的评价和阐释，而不是简单的罗列和介绍。最重要的一点是，文献综述应引向论文的论题和论点，切不可将其孤立起来，失去了它应有的价值。属于这种论文类型的本科毕业论文，这个部分应尽可能写得简短点。
研究方法部分应论述研究的对象，验证假定的数据，阐述数据来源，以及获得和分析数据的过程。这个部分可能需要用一定的篇幅来介绍实验的参与者、素材和过程。介绍应尽可能地详尽，以便其他研究者能按你的方法去验证你的结果。如果是调研报告，则需要对样本选取、研究步骤、研究工具及数据处理方法等进行说明和解释。研究步骤指的是研究时的流程，研究工具主要是指该研究中所用的问卷、量表等。数据处理方法主要是将本研究所采用的统计分析方法，应该说清楚对于哪些数据需要采用什么样的统计方法，其目的是什么，从而让阅读者可以判断作者使用的数据处理方法的正确性。
研究结果是论文的中心，是依据实验数据对你的研究的阐释。本部分只提出研究的结果，包括正面的和负面的结果，无需对结果进行评价。这部分的表达应力求明晰。值得提醒的是，图表只可起到辅助作用，不能代替文字阐释。
结语用以阐释和评价实验数据，从而得出研究结论。这个部分还应当包括研究结果所产生的影响和对现有知识的修正，以及研究结果与已有研究的关系、研究的局限性及意外的发现。篇幅较短的论文中，讨论部分和结论部分通常合而为一。
论文结构可以根据内容、体裁的不同而灵活掌握。只要结构完整、逻辑缜密、条理清楚、层次分明，论文在写作形式上可以有所不同。
以本科生的实际情况来说，一般不宜选择这个类型的论文题目，主要原因是缺乏相应的研究基础以及所需的研究和写作时间。当然，也有例外。比如师范类的学生，如果在实习期间，既有进行调查研究的时间和合适的实验对象，又有足够的理论知识，当然可以尝试这类研究题目，但记住，研究范围最好限定在一个小范围内。
2. 批判分析或思辨推理的论文
No specified format governs these based on critical analysis or philosophical speculation. Rather, these theses contain a number of common elements, either developed in separate chapters or interwoven in each chapter. (Slade & Perrin, 2011: 44)
可以看出，批判分析或思辨推理的论文没有固定模式，但必须含有常见的成分或内容。这里说没有固定的模式，是指这些不可或缺的成分或内容不是按固定的模式来安排的。
此类论文的引言部分应根据计划研究的问题或讨论的议题，以现有的相关研究成果为背景。必须阐述的内容包括以往主要有些什么研究，论文的论题、论点与已有的相关学术研究的关系如何，它的重要性或学术价值何在。引言很可能涉及已有研究对作者的影响与启发，以及作者对已有的研究的见解，包括不同见解。应当注意的是，对已有研究的阐述不可只是简单的概括，而必须在概述的过程中表明它们与当前论点的关系，即必须对已有研究作出批评性评价。评价时必须保持平和的心态，不可偏激，无需靠贬低他人来证明自己的观点是正确的。
此类论文的中心部分应当呈现作者的研究和分析。对论证结果的阐释应力求思路清晰、条理分明，以便让读者觉得文章的分析全面、阐释周到、论证有说服力。
对于论点重要性的阐释或陈述，可以融合在研究结果的阐述中，也可以在结语部分提出。结语部分可以包括论文对已有研究的修正（或证实）有什么意义，肯定或否定研究所涉及领域的相关理论或假定，研究探索所开启的新的研究范围或对以后相关研究的展望。
英美文学研究方向的毕业论文应属于此类论文。我们在第二章提到过，撰写文学类论文时，一个常见的错误做法就是“节外生枝”，就是说，写作此类论文时，学生最容易犯的错误就是喧宾夺主、不得要领。比如，学生往往在引言部分用大量的篇幅介绍作家及作品，很少或根本不涉及相关的研究，更谈不上与自己的论点挂钩，缺失对作品的看法。不少本科生写文学研究方向的论文时，往往是在一大堆作品内容和作家成就地位的介绍之后，加入一些个人对作品的印象，几乎没有“文献综述”的内容。这只能说是读后感，缺乏有说服力的、学术性的分析论证。而事实上，评判论文主要依据的正是论文作者对所选论题的相关研究（包括研究方法）知道多少、研究有什么新意以及研究能够获得什么结果。
此类论文的中心部分是分析论证，应当关注论证的条理性和逻辑性。其中最重要的一点是：时时牢记论文的中心论点是什么，在论证过程中需要不断重申论文的中心论点。为了增强分析论证的说服力，应力求全面深刻，即考虑到论题的方方面面。
3. 以历史资料为依据的论文
Because papers based on historical research usually present data about the past, as well as interpret it, theorganization of the paper depends largely on the kind and quantity of information that the researcher is able to collect. The historical thesis thus follows no established format, but it usually contains several elements. (The elements of theses based on critical analysis, described previously, may be useful for the historical paper as well.)
Commonly, the major portion of the historical thesis is devoted to reporting the findings, often in the form of telling a story about the event under study. Chronological organization is the most obvious, and very often the most useful, way of arranging historical information. However, this information might also be ordered by another logicalprinciple, such as cause and effect, or divided or subdivided into categories such as persons, events, regions, or concepts. The introductory chapter(s) might be used to present the motive for the study, to detail the problems or deficiencies of previous scholarship, or to chronicle the difficulties and peculiarities of locating and retrieving the information in question. Some historical theses may serve solely to present new information; others will attempt to explain a current situation in light of the past or to revise theories about the nature or significance of a sequence of events. This kind of interpretive material may be woven through the whole study or presented in the introductory or concluding chapter(s). (Slade & Perrin, 2011: 44)
以历史资料为依据的论文也被称为“述而不作”的论文。由于研究历史资料的论文是要研讨资料而不是创造资料，因此没有固定的模式。此类论文的结构主要取决于作者所掌握的材料的性质和数量。虽然没有固定的模式，但基本的组成部分仍然不可或缺。这类论文的格式与批判分析或思辨推理的论文格式相似。
一般而言，此类论文主要是报告作者经过对历史资料的研究所得出的发现。其特点在于它的客观性。显然，按年代顺序来组织论文、安排历史资料，是最常见、最实用的方式。当然，历史资料也可以采用其他方式来安排，如因果关系，也可按“概念”“人物”或“事件”等类型进行细分。
此类论文的引言部分可用于介绍作者的研究动机，阐述以前的研究所遇到的难题或不足，也可用于阐述资料来源的困难和特殊性。研究历史资料的论文，有的仅仅是为了提供新的信息，有的是借助已有的研究和结论来解释新问题，有的是对相关理论进行修正。这些阐述性的内容可以融入全文，但更常见的是出现在引言或结语中。
对于本科生而言，如果既有条件获得充分的资料，又有相当的分析能力，也可以选择这一类题目。比如下面这几个题目就可以按“述而不作”的思路来写。
A Brief Study on English Antonyms
The Changes of English Word Meaning: Factors and Types
The Criteria of Poetic Translation
The Loan Words Introduced from English into Chinese
4. 综述型论文
综述型论文是对某一学科领域或课题范围的研究状况作综述性评述与介绍的一种论文类型。《建国以来我国口译研究之综述》便是一例。综述型论文要求作者在大量、广泛占有材料的基础上对某一学科或某项研究已有的研究成果（或现状）进行客观的归纳与整理，然后再根据作者的观察、分析与判断，概括出研究成果或研究状况的特点以及研究的脉络和发展走向。此外，提出现有研究的不足之处和对未来研究做出预测也是常见的内容。
综述包括“综”与“述”两方面。所谓“综”，是指必须对现有大量素材归纳整理、综合分析研究，使材料更加精炼明确、更加层次分明、更具逻辑性。所谓“述”，就是评述，是指要对所写专题作出比较深入、全面、系统的论述。
根据所搜集的文献资料数量、提炼加工的程度、组织写作形式及学术水平的高低，综述可分为普通性、归纳性和评论性三类：
普通性综述，是指作者具有一定学术水平，在搜集较多资料的基础上，撰写出系统性和逻辑性都较强的学术论文。论文中能表达出作者的观点或倾向性。
归纳性综述，是作者将搜集到的文献资料进行整理归纳，按一定顺序进行分类排列，使它们前后连贯，互相关联，从而撰写出具有系统性、条理性和逻辑性的学术论文。这类综述一定程度上反映了某一专题、某一领域的当前研究进展，但少有作者自己的见解和观点。
评论性综述，是在该领域有较高造诣、有较高学术水平的作者，在搜集大量文献资料的基础上，对原始素材归纳整理、综合分析，撰写出反映该领域当前研究进展和发展前景的评论性学术论文。此类论文逻辑性强，作者的见解和评论较多。
综述需写出主题的详细情报资料，不仅要指出发展背景和工作意义，还应有作者的评论性意见，指出研究成败的原因；研究动态与最新进展，且还应在评述的基础上，预测发展趋势和应用前景。因此，综述的书写格式比较多样化。综述一般包括三部分：前言—主体部分—总结部分。
前言主要叙述综述的目的和作用，概述主题的有关概念和定义，简述所选择主题的历史背景、发展过程、现状、争论焦点、应用价值和实践意义，同时还可限定综述的范围，使读者对综述的主题有一个初步的印象。
主体部分叙述方式灵活多样，可根据综述的内容，自行设计创造。一般可根据主体部分的内容多少分成几个大部分，每部分标上简短而醒目的小标题。部分的区分标准也多种多样，按年代、按问题、按不同论点、按发展阶段皆可。然而，不管用何种方式，都该包括历史发展、现状评述和发展前景预测三个方面的内容。
总结部分可以根据主体部分的论述，提出语言简明、含义确切的意见和建议；也可以对主体部分的主要内容作出扼要的概括，提出作者自己的见解；对于篇幅较小的综述，可不单独列出总结，仅在主体各部分内容论述完后，对全文进行高度概括。
5. 书评型论文
书评型论文是针对某本书（一般是有一定影响的新书）的内容、特点和价值发表评论意见的一种论文形式。书评的作者往往是专业或资深学者，因此其内容有较高的学术价值和参考价值。
书评型论文一般可以有三个部分：介绍、评价和推荐。介绍是对所评的书的内容作言简意赅的概括叙述，让读者对该书的内容有一个大概的了解。评价可以是总结全书作鸟瞰式的评述，是全文最重要、最关键的部分。推荐是书评的结尾。
三、毕业论文的组织结构
一篇毕业论文的整体结构（elements of a research papers）包括三个部分：正文前部分（the preliminaries, front matter）、正文部分（the text, body）和正文后部分（reference materials, back matter or end matter）。有关文前部分，如提纲和摘要，和文后部分，如参考文献目录和致谢，我们在其他章节里进行详细的论述，这里我们只讨论正文部分。
一般来说，毕业论文正文部分包括三部分，即引言、正文和结论。
引言部分（introduction）需要陈述研究动机和研究目的，以及表述论点句中的范围与核心。实际上，这一部分要提出正文里将要探讨的问题或者要摆出全文要详尽阐述的观点。引言部分不需要写很长，有一两段就可以了。开篇句子的内容不要离论文的论点太远。
正文（body）是论证分析，最好分成若干章节，分别拟一个小标题。每一章节要分成数个段落，每个话题都要有主题句。但是，小标题不宜过多。
通常，结论部分（conclusion）要写得简短。其作用是把文章中陈述的内容做一个收尾工作，表示通过实验、观察或推理得出了某些结论或观点。在结论部分还可以重申引言和正文部分的主要内容，也就是说，可以概括全文的内容。有时，在结论里还可以展开研究结果、发现、发明的前景，还可以在结论里强调论文的主题和目的。报告型科研论文可以对研究成果做简要讨论，而不做结论。论文本身的长度决定了结论的长度。
下面我们针对引言、结论以及如何展开正文进行详细的论述。
1. 引言的写法
引言是一篇论文的开始，对于吸引读者的注意力至关重要，应力求达到提纲挈领的效果。引言的基本任务是：以明白的语言告诉读者你要写什么，为何选这个题目（其意义何在）和计划怎么写，以及可能或想要得出什么结论，即论述论点。引言没有固定的程式，主要取决于论文的对象、论题和写作的方法。引言最基本的写法有：
（1） 以引文开篇引语（opening with a quotation）
引用一句或多句别人的话开篇，尤其是比较有趣或特别的话，能增加与读者的互动，增强吸引力。如：
According to Bertrand Russell, “No one understand the word ‘cheese’ unless he has a nonlinguistic acquaintance with cheese.” If, however, we follow Russells fundamental precept and place our “emphasis upon the linguistic aspects of traditional philosophical problems”, then we are obliged to state that no one can understand the word “cheese” unless he has an acquainttance with the meaning assigned to this word in the lexical code of English. Any representative of a cheeseless culinary culture will understand the English word “cheese” if he is aware that in this language it means “food made of pressed curds” and if he has at least a linguistic acquaintance with “curds”. We never consumed ambrosia or nectar and have only a linguistic acquaintance with the words “ambrosia”, “nectar”, and “gods”—the name of their mythical users, nonetheless, we understand these words and know in what contexts each of them may be used.
（2） 以提出论点开篇（opening with the thesis statement）
这是传统的开篇方式，又称为“minisummary”。如：
Given that the overall translation activity is a kind of communicative behavior between the source text (ST) author and the target text (TT) reader via the translator,there is no doubt that the major inquiry of translation studies is about how the translator can most successfully convey what is intended in the ST into the TT. In modern translation studies, much research has been done to answer in this fundamental question in various ways, from attempts to set up a precise goal for translation to scientific accounts of the translation process and the translators activity. With relation to this, the assessment of translation quality has been especially concerned with the degree of equivalence between ST and TT as concrete products in themselves rather than concerned with readerdependency of meaning in text understanding. In terms of theory, the assessment has been based on a traditional contrastive approach to the meaning of sentences.
Since the two major concerns of translation studies are the meaning of the ST andthe target readers understanding of it through the TT, any discussion about the task or process of translation is basically inadequate unless it fully takes account of the mechanism of text processing from the readers point of view. More specifically, we need to understand how the text and the readers mind interact with each other, and thus on what basis we can compare the ST and the TT for the assessment of translation quality.
（3） 以故事开篇（opening with a story）
如：
Recently The European ran an article on an ad designed to sell Carlsberg beer. In the ad, a sheep dog walks into a room full of dancing sheep, strolls up to the bar, and asks for a Carlsberg beer. Brigitte Nielsen searches all over for bottle opener, and when she does not find one, she opens the bottle between her ample breasts. The ad was designed in Denmark, for Denmark; it was sent over to the UK, where it was banned. Just one example of the many ways in which global marketing depends on knowledge on the target culture.
（4） 以令人感兴趣的数据开篇（opening with interesting statistics）
对读者有吸引力的数据也有助于写出给人深刻印象的开篇，如：
American Sign Language (ASL) is the second most preferred foreign language in the United States. Most deaf people use ASL. ASL is beginning to be provided under the Foreign Language Department in many universities and high schools around the country.
（5） 以一个问题开篇（opening with a question）
以一个或几个问句开篇，可能最容易的开篇方法。以计划在论文中回答的问题开篇能给人以深刻的印象，因为问题很可能会是读者在看到论题时所想到的。如：
Is ASL a language? Can ASL be written? Do you have to be born deaf to understand ASL completely? To answer these questions, one must firstunderstand exactly what ASL is. In this thesis, I attempt to explain this as well as answer my own questions.
（6） 开门见山的开篇（straightforward opening）
开门见山的开篇方式是一种直接、有效、简单的方式。如：
The purpose of the study is twofold: first, to examinetranslation from a historical point of view as a form of rewriting an original text and to discuss the forces or constraints that define the ideology and aesthetic experience of the target culture and that guide the translation activity from its beginning to the end; second, to discuss how and why translation as a form of rewriting was regarded as a means of generating a fullscale stateorganized initiative for modernization, the creation of the spirit of humanism, and the formation of a model for the process of revitalizing and recreating a national culture, of which the young Republic of Turkish in the 1940s will pose a concrete example.
一般而言，引言在论文的最后阶段完成，因为在这个阶段，研究者已经把握了整篇论文的脉络。好的引言给读者的第一印象是作者主题非常明确，同时又不缺乏贴切的引文、事实及逸闻趣事，具有吸引力，能让人清楚知道论文阐述的是什么问题。正如在第五章论述过的，引言一般以论点句结束。
2. 结语的写法
结语尽管所占篇幅不多，却至关重要。结语往往是一篇论文最难写的部分，却应该是写得最精彩的部分。
结语的基本任务是：总结全文、重申论文的论点。因此，结语应当强调论点的重要性，并让读者觉得你的论证完整、科学、有力，从而给读者留下良好的最后印象，并让读者觉得读过你的论文以后有所收获。
结语的另一个目标是加深读者对论文的内容，尤其是中心论点的印象。因此，结语一般不宜提出新的问题。结语中的总结不是对正文进行简单的重复，而是简明扼要地归纳正文的主要内容，具有较强的理论性。在必须概述的情况下，应当避免原封不动地重复前文出现过的话。此外，论文的结语还应指出论点的延伸意义。
常用的结语写法有以下几种：
（1） 概要性结尾（close with a summary）
有时，结语只是单纯地重申论文的论点，看起来很像论文的引言。如：
Because of a charter signed by President Abraham Lincoln and because of the work of two men, Amos Kendall and Edward Miner Gallaudet, Gallaudet University is what it is today—the place where people from all over the world can find information about deafness and deaf education. Gallaudet and the deaf community truly owe these three men for without them, we might still be“deaf and dumb”.
（2） 推论式结尾（close with a logical conclusion）
这种结语方式适合论证性的论文，即对论点的几个方面进行了分析论证的论文。分析论证的结果在这里提出显得水到渠成。如：
As one can see from reading the information presented, mainstreaming deaf students isnt always as effective as educating them in a segregated classroom. Deaf students learn better in a more oneonone basis like they can find in a school or program specially designed for them. Mainstreaming is just that; deaf students get lost in the process.
（3） 设问式结尾（close with a question）
这种结语的方式不是将结论和盘托出，而是给读者留下一个问题，供他们思考、探索。如：
Through all of my research, all of the people I interviewed, all of the institutions I visited, not one person could give me a clearcut answer to my question. Can all deaf people be educated in the same manner? I couldnt find the “right” answer. I hope you, the reader, will have better luck.
（4） 呼吁式结尾（close with a recommendation）
呼吁式结尾方式，是指作者在论文结束的时候，建议读者去支持一种事业，或呼吁他们采取行动。如：
American Sign Language is a fast growing language in America. More and more universities and colleges are offering it as part of their curriculum and some are even requiring it as part of their program. The writer suggests that anyone who has a chance to learn this beautiful language should grab that opportunity.
论文的结语虽无固定模式可以套用，但关于其如何开头，还是有一些较为常用的表达方式可供参照：
In summary,...
To summarize,...
Theconclusion is that...
On the basis of the above discussion, we may come to the conclusion that...
Through the analysis of..., we may conclude as follows:
The writer concludes that...
The author finds that...
In this paper, we have explored...
In this paper, we examine...
This paper shows that...
This paper looks at...
This paper reveals that...
This paper concludes that...
好的结论不是简单地总结前面所提到的内容，而是要重申表述论点的主题句，同时，不能加入论文中没有讨论的观点。如果可能，尽量提出未来的研究方向和可以继续研究的观点。
3. 如何展开思路
上面讲了引言和结论的写法，接下来讲一下如何在论文中展开思路，按规定的字数和要求完成论文。
有些学生在撰写论文时虽然知道应遵照提纲设计的总思路去逐步落实，但是写起来却常常不知道该写什么了。出现这种现象的主要原因是，在阐述和论证观点时不善于采用不同的方法去拓展思路。下面我们就介绍几种常用的拓展思路的方法，供大家参考使用。
（1） 引证法
顾名思义，引证法就是引用某些理论或权威的话加以佐证。比如对一些术语（terms）外延意义及内涵意义进行界定，就可以引用权威工具书或文献中的定义。需要注意的是，在引证时，要灵活变通，不可大段抄袭，隐没自己的论点。除直接引用外，转述、总结也是不可或缺的引用方式。不管用哪种方式引用，要尽可能让引文与自己的论文融为一体，不可有晦涩生硬的感觉。
（2） 分析法
具体包括历史分析、社会学分析、心理分析、文化分析、语言学分析、结构分析、功能分析、语义分析、类型分析、发展过程分析、原因分析、效果分析等等。
这种方法适用于篇幅较长的论说文。宏观来说，一般是将较为复杂的事物分解为若干部分，一一论述或选取其中之一深入挖掘。就文学方向而论，可以分析一部作品的情节结构、叙事方法、人物性格特征和刻画、象征手法、思想主题、语言修辞等；就语言学方向而言，可以分析某种语言现象的性质、用途和意义，如广告用语的特色和文体风格、前置词短语的句法功能、母语\方言对英语语音学习的影响等；就翻译而言，可选择翻译技巧、翻译标准、风格翻译、文化翻译进行分析；就社会文化方面，可分析某民族的价值观取向与特点，如美国的个人主义价值观、成功意识、家庭、爱情和友谊观、宗教观等。
微观来说，比如因果分析，这种方法要通过分析原因或结果的方式对中心论点加以论证。比如某同学要分析跨文化交际中的一些问题，要做“中美文化冲击产生的原因”这样的研究，便可采用因果分析。
（3） 比较法
比较是分析两事物有何相同、相似之处（comparison）和不同之处（contrast），其目的是加深对两事物本质、特性、功能等的认识与理解。以日常谈话中的文化差异为例，可以从打招呼和告别，各种称呼、祝贺和赞扬，其他社交礼节等方面引出英汉语的不同点，再分析深层原因即价值观的差异。比较法适用于三种情况：原以为两事物是不同的，但实际上是相同的；原以为两事物是相同的，但实际上是不同的；一种事物优于另一种事物。使用比较法时应注意，两个事物必须同属于一个大的属类，这样才有可比性。比较时既可以用横向比较模式（subjectbysubject pattern），也可以用纵向比较模式（pointtopoint pattern）。横向比较模式是从相比较的两事物出发；纵向比较模式是从两事物共有的方面出发。两种模式的结构如下表所示（对computer和brain进行比较）：
横向比较纵向比较
1. Computer1. Speed
1. SpeedComputer
2. Path of thoughtBrain
3. Number of components2. Path of thought
4. Relative sizeComputer
5. Free willBrain
B. Brain3. Number of components
1. SpeedComputer
2. Path of thoughtBrain
3. Number of components4. Relative size
4. Relative sizeComputer
5. Free willBrain
5. Free will
Computer
Brain
比较法常用的过渡词有：both, each, similarly, at the same time, like, as, too, also, compared with (用于comparison); on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast with/to, instead (of), unlike, the opposite (of), while, whereas, but, however, yet, nevertheless (用于contrast)等。
（4） 分类法
在学术论文写作中为了有效组织材料、逐步展开论述，常常用到分类法。分类法是按照一定的标准将事物分成几个体系性类组。具体做法是，先将所谈事物进行定义、界说，然后根据共同特征将该事物分成小类，并按照一定的次序将它们安排在一个系统中。分类时首先应该设定一个分类标准，并始终坚持这个标准。比如要论述诗歌翻译的风格再现问题，就要按照诗歌文体的风格表现来分为形式标记和非形式标记。形式标记又可细分为音律、形式、句法、词汇、修辞等；而非形式标记则可分为表现手法、作者气质和作品意境等。
分类法可以采用下列句型进行过渡：
...can be classified into the following categories.
...may be divided into the following groups.
We may group...into three categories.
...can be classified into 1)..., 2)..., and 3)...
...are usually classified into three categories according to...
In his work, he classifies... under the following three types:
By...,...may be grouped into...
（5） 例证法
例证法也就是常见的摆事实，讲道理。在语言学和语言与文化方向的论文中较多采用这种方法。对一些抽象概念用具体例子加以说明，对一些一般概念用例子使其具体化，对一些论点、观点用一些实例加以阐述，这就是例证法的主要用途。其目的是增强论文的说服力，加深读者对概念、事物和论点的理解。例证法要注意四个问题：一是例证要典型，具有某个方面的代表性；二是例证的内容要真实、可靠；三是例证与被说明事物之间要有关联性；四是多个例证的排列（叙述）要井然有序，体例要整齐划一。
例证列举可以采用下列词语作为过渡：
..., for example,...
..., for instance,...
For example,...
For instance,...
The following are some examples:...
Examples are:...
Look at the following examples:...
To illustrate it, let us take the following case as an example.
Take...for example.
当然，上述论证方法并不互相排斥，在论述过程中，运用多种论证方法才能完成一篇论述严谨、推理正确的毕业论文。
第八章调研报告概述
第八章调研报告概述
前一章我们提到研究报告型论文包括调查报告和测试报告，对于本科生而言，完成测试报告有些力不从心，但是，调查报告还是可以尝试的。
一、调研报告的内涵
调研报告是指对社会及自然生活中的某个情况和问题进行一定的调研研究，通过一些定量的人为分析、研究、总结后再写成书面报告。具体说，调研报告的写作有两个构成要素：一是调研，二是报告。所谓调研，是指作者深入到社会基层和工作实际当中，去掌握大量的第一手资料，摸清情况，了解事实；所谓报告，是指将调研后得到的材料经过定性、定量的分析概括，寻找事物之间的联系，总结出具有深刻意义和满足需求的重要信息，并以文稿方式将调研研究成果体现出来。因此，调研报告具有较高的信息情报价值和新闻价值。写作调研报告，可以锻炼培养大学生深入社会、调研研究的实践能力，学习和掌握对复杂问题深入分析的研究探索能力，有助于提高大学生的理论与实际相结合的思维能力和写作能力。
调研报告与论文从它们所表达的性质、作用和手段上来看，都是不同的。调研报告是对某一情况、事件、经验、问题，经过在实践中的调查了解，将调查了解到的全部情况和材料进行“去粗取精、由此及彼、由表及里”的分析研究，揭示本质，寻找规律，总结经验，最后以书面形式表现出来。论文是用来进行科学研究和描述科学研究成果的文章。
从广义上来说，所有的调查报告都带有某种研究性质，都是调研报告，而狭义的调研报告指的是以研究为目的写出的调查报告。也就是说，调查报告侧重调查过程，调研报告侧重于研究与结果。
二、调研报告的类型
依据调研报告的不同功能，可将调研报告分为反映情况型调研报告、典型分析型调研报告和探讨研究型调研报告等。
反映情况型调研报告的功能：向读者反映情况，提供信息。主要就调研对象的某一方面或某几方面情况做较具体深入的调研，摸清情况，理清头绪，把握特点，并且客观、真实地将调研所得情况提供给读者，一般不做议论。
典型分析型调研报告的功能：向读者提供现实生活中成功或失败的个案，通过对典型个案的深入调研，不但了解事情的过程，效果或结果，而且要分析形成这种情况的主观和客观原因，从而帮助读者认清事物的真相，学习可借鉴的经验或可吸取的教训。此类调研报告既要有大量事实，又要求有作者的分析观点，具有初级论文的特点。
探讨研究型调研报告的功能：通过大量调查研究和理论分析，向读者提供具有学术性、科学性、创新性的观点和见解，属于学术论文的范畴。它的研究前提是要以大量新的调研事实资料为基础：运用专业理论对所提出的观点和见解，从理论和事实两个方面加以分析论证，上升到一定的理论高度，在学科建设和实际工作中有着较强的指导作用。
三、调研报告的工作环节
调研报告如同其他题材的论文工作环节一样，首先要确定研究问题，即确定选题，然后围绕确定的研究问题展开调查研究。正如《MPA论文写作与研究方法》一书中所论述，“按时间的推移和任务的不同，调研报告的过程大体可以分为四个基本阶段：准备阶段、调查阶段、分析阶段和总结阶段。每个阶段的主要任务如下图所示”。
（张志刚，2009:188）
图81
1. 准备阶段
准备阶段的全部工作，可以理解为实现调查目标而进行的路径选择和工具准备。所谓路径选择是指为达到调查目标而进行的调查设计工作，它包括调查目的、调查对象、调查思路、调查方法以及具体技术的各个方面，并且对设计的调查方案进行可行性研究。工具准备指的是调查所依赖的测量工具或信息收集工具——问卷的设计，同时还包括调查信息的来源，即调查对象的选取方式。
2. 调查阶段
调查阶段也指收集资料或调查方案的执行阶段。此阶段的主要任务是根据调查设计中确定的调查方法以及调查设计的具体要求，采用多种方法，收集调查对象的有关资料。比较常用的资料收集方法是问卷调查法和访谈法。无论采用何种方法，调查者都要深入现场，接触被调查者，亲自了解、体会被调查者相关情况。在此阶段投入的人力和时间最多，遇到的实际问题也最多，所以需要很好的组织和管理。此外，在调查过程中要及时集中、整理收集到的相关资料，边收集资料，边进行资料的审核，以便随时发现问题，及时进行资料的补充调查和修正工作。
3. 分析阶段
分析阶段是对调查对象深入认识的一个阶段，也是感性认识上升到理性认识的阶段。分析阶段的主要任务是，对实地调查所收集到的资料进行审核整理、统计和分析。资料审核就是对调查所获得的文字资料和数据资料进行系统的甄别，区分真伪优劣，消除资料中的错、假、冗、缺，从而保证资料的真实、完整和准确；资料整理，即将审核后的资料进行汇总和加工，或者转换和录入到计算机中，以备分析所用；资料的统计处理就是运用统计学原理和方法，对所得到的调查资料进行数量关系的研究分析，从中揭示调查对象的状态、水平、结构及其与其他事物之间的内在联系；结果分析就是在相关的理论基础上，运用逻辑思维方法对经过整理、统计处理后的数据，进行分析，揭示对象的内在本质，说明调查对象的前因后果，预测发展趋势，做出理论性说明，在此基础上，有针对性地提出对实际工作的具体建议。
4. 总结阶段
总结阶段是整个调查研究成果的集中体现阶段。对于本科毕业生来说，总结阶段的主要任务就是撰写毕业论文，即以论文的形式将调查所得到的结果系统地、集中地、规范地反映出来。从研究的问题、调查的目的、调查的方式，到资料的收集、分析方法，到调查得出的结论、对现实的社会现象或管理实践的应用价值，都要在论文中进行总结和反映。
四、调研报告的撰写格式
在长期写作时间中，调研报告的格式已经逐步明晰，有了相对固定的模式。
1. 标题
标题有两种写法：
一种是规范化的标题格式，多由事由和文种构成，基本格式为“关于×××的调查报告”“×××调查”等。例如：“山西省农村中学英语教学情况的调查报告”“关于离石区信义镇英语教师状况的调查报告”“英语教师状况的调查”。
另一种是自由式标题，包括陈述式、提问式和正副题结合使用三种。陈述式如“农村英语教学质量稳步提升”，提问式如“为什么临县乡村小学生流向城镇学校求学”，正副标题结合式，正题陈述调查报告的主要结论或提出中心问题，副题标明调查的对象、范围、问题，如“切实提高乡村英语教师教学实践能力——方山县店坪小学英语实践教学调查”。
2. 正文
正文一般分前言、主体、结尾三部分。
前言，又称引言、导语。它是调研报告的开头，简洁明了地介绍调查有关情况，或提出全文的引子，为正文写作做好铺垫。引言部分写什么、如何写，没有具体的规定，大家可以根据自己掌握的材料、结构安排和写作目的等具体情况，不拘一格，灵活而定。
前言有几种写法：第一种是写明调查的起因、时间、地点、对象、经过和方法，以及人员组成等情况，从中引出中心问题或基本结论；第二种是写明调查对象的历史背景、发展经过、现实情况、主要成绩、突出问题等，进而提出主要观点来；第三种是开门见山，直接提出调查的结果，肯定做法、提出问题、概括影响、说明中心内容等。前言要精练概括，直切主题，起到画龙点晴的作用。
主体，是调查报告最主要的部分，这部分详细介绍调研的基本情况、做法、经验，以及通过分析调查研究所得材料，得出具体认识、观点和基本结论。
典型经验的调研报告的正文主要内容有：要在工作的项目、规模、效益等方面用统计材料说明所取得的成绩，以达到令人信服的目的；介绍取得成功的做法、经验，选准工作取得成效的根本经验，从方法、过程、步骤、措施等方面进行陈述，并用工作的实绩加以进一步的说明介绍；分析研究结论的优越性，总结先进工作所带来的各种效益和成功经验。
揭露问题的调研报告正文主要有：存在的问题，必须要用数字和事实说明问题的严重程度、所造成的后果以及损失的程度，准确把握问题的性质。这部分属于基本情况的介绍；分析问题产生原因，这是反映问题的关键环节。所以，原因分析要抓准，针对问题找原因，分清主客观，辨别清人为因素与外在因素，以便采取相应的改进措施，使问题尽快得到纠正和解决；提出改进建议，针对问题、针对调研对象的实际情况，提出具体可行的改进意见和建议，建议要针对性强，切实可行，对调研的对象有参考和利用的价值。
总的来说，调研报告正文的结构有纵式结构、横式结构、综合结构三种形式。这三种结构，以综合结构常为人们采用。
横式结构，就是要把调查的内容，逐一综合分析，并紧紧围绕主旨，按照不同类别分别归纳成几个问题来写，每一个问题可加上标题，且每个问题里往往还有若干小问题。典型经验性质的调研报告一般多采用这种结构。这种调研报告形式的特点是观点鲜明，中心突出，使人一目了然。
纵式结构有两种形式：一种是按调查事件的起因、发展和先后次序进行叙述或议论。一般情况调研报告和揭露问题的调研报告多使用此结构，这种形式有助于读者对事物发展有着深入的全面的了解。一种是按成绩、原因、结论，层层递进安排结构，一般综合性质的调研报告多采用这种形式。
综合式结构的调研报告有纵式和横式两种特点，互相穿插配合，组织安排材料。采用这种调研报告写法，一般是在叙述和议论发展过程时多用纵式结构，而写收获、认识和经验教训时大多采用横式结构。
调研报告的主体部分，不论采用何种结构方式，都应做到主次分明，先后有序，联系紧密，详略得当，层层深入，为更好地表达主题服务。
结尾的功能是归纳前文，对论文进一步补充完善。结尾的写法也比较多，典型经验的调研报告常常在结尾指出不足或有待改进提高之处；反映情况、揭露问题的调研报告在结尾提出建议；研究分析型调研报告结尾多总结全文，得出结论。不论采用何种形式，结尾对全文是不可缺少的补充或完善，切不可无病呻吟、画蛇添足。
五、社会调查结果常用图表
统计图表指的是调查资料经过整理、汇总、分组统计后所得结果的表现形式，在调查研究类论文中经常会用到它们。采用表格、图表及图解说明的目的是为了在语境中帮助讨论和解释信息。
1. 统计图表的制作要求
统计图表常用来简洁地表示分析结果。论文中图表和文字部分要形成整体，尽量与文字部分接近。文字部分要对图表的目的和作用进行解释，并对图表内容给予说明和评述。表格是为了显示数据形式的证据，而图形常用来表示变量间的关系或者事物发展变化的趋势。表格和图形要避免零乱，让读者能直观地了解其含义。表格或曲线表达的内容不要过多，内容繁杂时，可一分为几。
统计图表制作原则是：科学、规范、简明、实用、美观。在制作统计图表时应注意以下几个方面：
（1） 图表都要编号。毕业论文中的图表采用按章节依次编号的形式，即“表21”“图43”（半字线前的数字表示所在章节，半字线后数字表示该表/图在该章节的排序；表和图的编号分开排序）。正文提及它们时可用“见表21”等字眼，而不能说“见下表”等。
（2） 每个图表都要有标题。标题既要能准确、贴切地表达图表的主要内容，又要简明扼要，不宜过长。统计表的表号和标题位于表格上方中间位置，统计图的图号和标题位于图形的下方中间位置。
（3） 数据是统计图表的核心内容，必须认真仔细地逐一核对，确保准确无误。数据排列要求整齐，有单位的量，要注明单位。数字一般采用阿拉伯数字表示。
（4） 尽可能将表格放于一页，如果过长，就用“TABLEContinued”字样放于表格线上的中间部位。
2. 统计图表的类型
常用的统计图有条形图、圆形图和折线图三种类型。
（1） 条形图
条形图又称柱形图，它是以宽度相等、长度不等的长度来表示不同的统计数字，如表示频数或百分比的多少等。条形图使用于内容较为独立，缺乏连续性的数量资料，用来表示有关数量的多少，特别适合于对各数量进行对比。
图82**区1993—2004年纸质英语读物发行数量统计
（2） 圆形图
圆形图又称饼图，它是以圆内不同扇形面积的大小来表示总体中不同部分所占的比重，要注明各扇形所代表的项目名称及其所占的百分比。圆形图适用于内容无连续性的资料，一般显示总体中各组成成分所占比例。
图83××大学英语专业毕业论文选题情况
（3） 折线图
折线图又称曲线图，是通过上下变化的线段，来反映所研究现象随着时间变化的过程和发展趋势的图形。折线图适用于内容有连续性、表现出一定变化趋势和发展动态的数量资料。
图84××市城乡重点大学录取人数统计图
学术论文常用的表格形式为三线表，即在表格中没有竖线，只有三条横线，如表81所示。但表格的具体形式要视各个高校对论文的具体要求而定。
表81山西省高考英语考试的内容和题型（虚拟）
考核内容比例考试材料考试题型
1 听力测试听力理解15%对话等听力篇章选择题
2 阅读测试词汇理解
仔细阅读理解
长篇阅读理解35%阅读理解短篇、中长篇选择题
3 语法测试语言表达和改错30%填词、改错填空题
4 写作测试写作能力20%命题作文、情景描述等短文写作
需要注意的是，对于同一组研究数据应避免既用表格又用图形表达的情况。表格的优点是可以方便地列举出大量精确数据或资料，而图形则可以直观、有效地表达复杂数据。因此，对于表格或图形的选择，应视数据表达的需要而定。如果强调展示给读者精确的数值，就采用表格形式；如果要强调展示数据的分布特征或变化趋势，则可以采用图示方法。
事物的产生和发展往往遵循一定的规律，调研报告的写作过程实际上也是探索事物发生发展规律的过程。报告的论点和论据必须符合自然、社会规律，而不是追随潮流，这就要求调查人员具有敬业精神和追求真理的精神。
附录
社会心理因素问卷
英语专业学生素质调查问卷
（社会部分II）
请您在答卷纸上回答以下各题。在以下各个问题后面，附有四种不同的选择。由于各人情况不同，任何选择都是可能的，不存在答案“正确”或“错误”的问题。因此请您根据自己的实际情况和看法，从A、B、C、D中挑出最适合本人情况的选择项，并在答卷纸上把相应的字母涂黑。
100%75%50%25%0%
总是经常有时很少
1. 我的父母（或父母之一）在工作中使用外语。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
2. 我的父母提醒我学好英语对自己的将来时十分重要的。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
3. 我的父母询问我在英语学习方面的成绩如何。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
4. 我的思想情绪起伏不定。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
5. 在英语学习方面，我感到有来自周围同学的压力。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
6. 当我用汉语表述思想时，想到用英语应该怎么说。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
7. 我上完英语课后，回想我在课上学到了什么。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
8. 凡是有与英语有关的课外活动时，我积极参加。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
9. 我在本校图书馆能借到想看的英语读物。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
10. 我在英语学习方面受益于课外读物。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
11. 我在政治学习时干与英语学习有关的事。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
12. 我每天抽出时间看看报纸。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
13. 我为将来的工作分配如何而担心。
A） 总是B） 经常C） 有时D） 很少
14. 我学习英语的目的。
A） 十分明确B） 基本明确C） 不十分明确D） 不明确
15. 我们的精读教材（或英语主课教材）。
A） 很难B） 较难C） 适中D） 较容易
16. 我们的精读教材（或英语主课教材）。
A） 很有趣B） 有趣C） 一般D） 没意思
17. 我平均每周用于阅读课外英语读物的时间大约是。
A） 少于6B） 6～11C） 12～17D） 多于17
18. 我平均每周用于课外听力训练（包括听力室以外的听力训练）的时间大约是小时。
A） 少于3B） 3～5C） 6～8D） 多于8
19. 我平均每周用于体育锻炼（不包括体育课）的时间大约是小时。
A） 少于3B） 3～5C） 6～8D） 多于8
20. 我平均每周用于同讲英语的外籍教师或外国人交谈（包括外籍教师授课）的时间大约是小时。
A） 少于2B） 2～4C） 5～7D） 多于7
21. 我平均每周用于看英语录像或电影（包括自己看和统一组织看）的时间是小时。
A） 少于2B） 2～4C） 5～7D） 多于7
22. 我平均每周用于政治学习（不包括政治必修课）的时间大约是小时。
A） 少于2B） 2～4C） 5～7D） 多于7
23. 我当时选择了英语专业是因为。
A） 我喜欢英语
B） 英语专业可提供好的就业机会
C） 别无选择
D） 以上三种都不适合我
24. 我们的精读课（或英语主课）常常使我感到。
A） 收获很大B） 有收获
C） 收获不大D） 收获很小
25. 我上精读课（或英语主课）时常常练习机会。
A） 积极争取B） 争取
C） 等老师给我D） 放弃
26. 我觉得精读课（或英语主课）老师备课。
A） 很认真B） 较认真
C） 不很认真D） 很不认真
27. 我觉得精读课（或英语主课）教师英语水平。
A） 高且讲得清楚B） 一般但讲得清楚
C） 高但讲不清楚D） 一般且讲不清楚
28. 对老师留的作业我常常。
A） 按要求按时完成
B） 按要求但不一定按时完成
C） 能少做就少做
D） 忘记做
29. 对老师发还的作业我常常。
A） 及时改正错误
B） 下次交作业前改好错
C） 看一下批改部分但不改错
D） 放回书桌里就不再看了
30. 用英语开设的选修课和其他各类选修课相比，我。
A） 对前者更有兴趣B） 对两者兴趣一样
C） 对后者更有兴趣D） 对两者都没兴趣
31. 我要求自己的英语成绩。
A） 在班里名列前茅B） 在班里不好也不坏
C） 考试能及格就行D） 我从不在乎名次
32. 现在毕业分配与学习成绩好坏。
A） 没关系B） 关系不大
C） 有关系D） 关系很大
33. 现在“哪来哪去”的分配办法，使我感到。
A） 将来大有作为B） 将来工作有希望
C） 前途渺茫D） 对我没有影响
34. 我分配时回到自己原来的招生地区。
A） 很愿意B） 不反对
C） 不愿意D） 很不愿意
35. 毕业分配时英语主课老师应该有发言权。
A） 很同意B） 同意C） 无所谓D） 不同意
36. 大学生在校期间有政治学习是的。
A） 很有必要B） 有必要
C） 没什么必要D） 毫无必要
37. 我对社会上的不正之风。
A） 很不满意B） 不满意
C） 关心但不愿多想D） 不关心
38. 当看报碰上政论文文章时，我一般。
A） 从来不看B） 走马观花看一下
C） 从头到尾看完D） 看完并加以思考
39. 如果有学生自己组织以讲议国家大事为主要内容的课外活动，我会。
A） 积极参加B） 参加
C） 偶尔参加D） 没兴趣参加
40. 学校的课外活动内容。
A） 丰富B） 较丰富C） 不大丰富D） 单调
41. 我认为我将来的工作自己有出色的英语能力。
A） 很需要B） 需要C） 不大需要D） 不需要
42. 我认为自己在英语学习方面。
A） 很刻苦B） 刻苦C） 不太刻苦D） 不刻苦
（资料来源：刘润清、胡壮麟主编，外语教学中的科研方法，1999）
第九章毕业论文的文献格式
第九章毕业论文的文献格式
第一节毕业论文的文献引用
本科毕业论文是一种学术论文，在其中引用他人的研究成果必不可少。从本质上讲，一篇毕业论文就是论文作者把自己的思想与别人的思想完美结合起来，也就是说，论文作者要把自己对有关选题的想法和来自前几个阶段所收集的材料中的事实、数据、观点、看法有机地结合在一起。
正文中引用的文献资料主要包括单本专著、多卷本、系列著作、学术期刊上的论文、工具书、公开发表的文件、未发表的文字、学位论文、电子版文献、互联网上发表的文字等。
引述别人的观点，可以直接引用，也可以间接引用，这两种引用方式都要加上相应的注释，用来注明所引文字的作者和出处。
一、直接引用
直接引用（direct quotations）就是一字不差地引用原始资料，用于需要再现权威意见、保持原始的说法，或要强调所引用的原始资料的真实性的时候。有争议的论题，或需要引用专家的意见来支持自己的论证的时候，也可以用直接引用，因为直接引用具有更强的权威性。
需要注意的是，直接引语不宜过长，否则容易分散读者的注意力。超过半页篇幅的直接引语会显得不协调。因此，直接引语时，要舍得忍痛割爱，只引用传达最中心的内容的部分。篇幅超过半页又必须引用的，要把引文放在附录里，并在文中说明。
较短的直接引用（如果引用的文字不超过40字，大约印刷文字的四行，那就直接放在论文之中，用双引号引出）：
Raymond Williams explains that the word career has all but lost its original meaning. “Career is now so regularly used to describe a persons progress in life, or, by derivation from this, his profession or vocation that it is difficult to remember, in the same context, its original meaning of a racecourse and a gallop.”
较长的直接引用（如果引用文字超过40字，或四行以上，则不用引号，另起一行，从左边缩进5个空格，隔行打印）：
Raymond Williams explains that the word career has all but lost its original meaning:
Career is now so regularly used to describe a persons progress in life, or by derivation from this, his profession or vocation that it is difficult to remember, in the same context, its original meaning of a racecourse and a gallop—though in some context, as in the phrase careering about, these survive.
诗歌的引用
诗歌的引用一般有三种情况：一是引用单一诗行，在正文中直接用引号引出。如下例：
Suddenly a butterfly came into his sight and “I” saw it flying and flying and then looked “At a tall tuft of flowers beside a brook”, which made “me” feel as if the movers were swinging the scythes, working, talking and laughing together.
二是引用两三行诗行，在正文中直接用引号引出，用“/”分开各行，斜线前后要各空一格，保持原诗的大写格式。如下例：
It begins with the lines “Some say the world will end in fire; / Some say in ice.”
“The woods decay, the woods decay and fall, / The vapours weep their burthen to the ground” is written by Alfred Tennyson to show his eagerness to live a real life.
三是引用一个或多个诗节。如果引用的诗歌超过两行，则须另起一行，从左边缩进10个空格，不用引号；如果一个诗行必须分成两行打印时，被分出来的后半部分要左边缩进5个空格。如下例：
In the following lines, Tennyson expresses the Poets desire for freedom to speak out:
It is the land that freemen till,
That sobersuited Freedom chose,
The land, where girt with friends or foes
A man may speak the thing he will.
In Song of Myself, Walt Whitman uses the diction and rhythm of natural speech.
A child said What is the grass? Fetching it to me with
Full Hands;
How could I answer the child? I do not know what it
Is any more than he.
I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out of
Hopeful green stuff woven.
戏剧的引用
引用戏剧文字时，比如引用戏剧中的对白，人物的名字要从左边顶格算起，左缩进10格，加下划线。如果名字较长，第一次引用全名，之后再次引用时可以用缩略形式。名字之后加句点，与话语之间空2格。如果引用的对白连续几行，从第二行开始，从人物名字的第一个字母算起，左缩进10格。舞台提示放在括号里，斜体或加下划线，大致与原文相同。例如：
In a flashback, Millerdemonstrates that the Loman family has a memory of better times.
[Linda enters, as of old, a ribbon in her hair, carrying a basket of washing.]
Linda. [ With youthful energy] Hello, dear!
Willy. Sweetheart!
Linda. Howd the Chevvy run?
Willy. Chevrolet, Linda, id the greatest ca ever built. [To the boys] Since when do you let your mother carry wash up the stairs?
此外，直接引用时大家还需注意以下几个问题：
1. 导入引文的方式
为了行文的流畅，在引用时要采用恰当的导入引用方式。导入中应该包括原文的内容和引用的理由，特别说明原文与所写论文之间的关系，如论文作者是否同意引文中的观点、所引的内容与其他引用内容的区别等。引文的导入应该是论文语言和引文语言之间流畅自然的过渡。例如：
As Reuben Brower has indicated, “The average reader of a translation in English wants to find the kind of experience which has become identified with ‘poetry’ in his readings of English literature. The translator who wishes to be read must in some degree satisfy this want.”
In the introduction to his translation of the Kalevala, Friberg overstates the case when he writes: “The Finnish people through the Kalevala actually sang themselves into existence.”
In Bentleys translation she says: “If no one had wanted to be free, the king wouldnt have had any fun.”
The fact that this version of womanhood is an active social construction, and one invented by men in the interests of maintaining hierarchies, is displayed in Carews “A Married Woman”:...
需要注意的是，不管是直接放在论文之中的引用部分，还是另起行的引用文字，句式并非一成不变，大家在写作时应该根据具体行文的需要适当加以变通。
2. 直接引用中字母的大小写
论文中的引文要合乎论文的整体逻辑，符合论文句子和段落的语法要求。因此，直接引用时，大家要正确使用句子中的大小写。
如果原文的一个句子在引用时成为论文中一个完整独立的句子，无论在原文中句子的第一个词的第一个字母是否大写，引文中一定要大写。例如：
原文句子：To begin with, how can things so insecure as the successful experiences of this world afford a stable anchorage?
引用句子：William James asks, “How can things so insecure as the successful experiences of this world afford a stable anchorage?”
相反，如果原文的一个句子在引用时成为论文中某个句子的一部分，原文句子的第一个词的第一个大写字母要变成小写，引用部分可以用引号，也可不用。例如：
原文句子：Every war propels some obscure city or town into the limelight.
引文句子：Harrison E. Salisbury has observed that “every war propels some obscure city or town into the limelight,” pointing out that the identities of Guernica, Coventry, and Stalingrad emerged largely in connection with war.
3. 直接引用中的标点符号
直接放在论文之中的引用部分要括入双引号，双引号放在逗号或句号之后，冒号或分号之前：
“The several hundred stories in the two books,” people believe, “represent a corpus of fairy tales, animal fables, and religious allegories that have remained unrivaled up to this day.”
Piggy is timid at first, but he is brave enough to debate with Jack later: “Which is better—to behave ourselves and get saved or to hunt and make trouble”; besides, Jacks evilness also has an expanding and strengthening process.
The dictionary gives a brief explanation of “postmodernism”: a style of building...
First the author talked about “New Criticism”; then he discussed “postmodernism.”
感叹号和问号的位置分两种情况：如果标点符号属于引文，放在引号之前；如果标点符号属于所写的论文，则放在引号之后。例如：
But Jack speaks out his first name unexpectedly, and says, “Why do you call me Jack?”(引文的一部分)
Do we all know the truth “Time and tide wait for no man” ? (不是引文的一部分)
如果引文本身含有引号，引述时可以在双引号中使用单引号。例如：
This is “our profound and powerful particle, in our ‘undone’, ‘unloved’, ‘unforgiven’” which Mrs. Meynell once named in describing the genius of English speech: “the ‘un’ that summons in order that it may banish, and keeps the living word present to hear sentence and denial, showing the word ‘unloved’ to be not less than archangel ruined.”
有时候进行直接引用时，作者不想引述整段内容，为了表明一些内容被省略，需要使用省略号（注意：中文的省略号是六个实心点，英文的是三个实心点）。
省略的内容出现的地方不同，省略号的用法也不同。如果在句子中间省略内容，要用有间隔的3个圆点表示。如果在引文的句尾省略内容，先写句号，接着写3个有间隔的圆点。例如：
Hardy wrote,“It was less a reform than a transfiguration...”
如果句尾省略部分的后面还有括号括住的内容，先写省略号，把句号放在括号后面。例如：
He is a sensual man:“he had an almost swarthy complexion with full lips badly moulded, though red and smooth above which was a wellgroomed black moustache with curled points...” (Hardy, 2012: 43).
省略一个或两个以上的句子时，也用3个圆点表示。但是，在做这样的省略时，3个圆点前后都必须是完整的句子。
如果引文中省略大段内容，如数节诗行，几个段落或几页内容，要用一行又间隔的圆点打印。
直接引用就是完全重复一段引文，不可做任何修改，包括标点、单词大小写，甚至每个拼写错误，可在括号中用斜体字 “sic” 标出错误。
例如：
William Shakesper [sic] probably wrote Macbeth in 1606 as a tribute to James II.
二、间接引用
间接引用（indirect quotations）就是不引用别人的原话，而是用自己的语言和表达方式间接引用他人的言论。引用应力求精确，避免曲解和改变原文的观点、倾向等，也不可遗漏主要的信息。间接引用是更常用的引用方式，因为它更能使读者的注意力集中于你的论述。所以，在写作论文时，应尽量多采用间接引用的方式。
间接引用常用的方式是释义和概括。释义（paraphrase）是用不同的表达方式阐述原文含义，使之更加简洁、明了。概括（summarize） 是将整篇文献概括为几句话，甚至一两句话。
例如：
According to Anthony Toffler, there are four major sorts of professional papers, including report paper, research paper, course paper and thesis paper. All of them can be regarded as a format printed documents in which professionals present their views and research findings on any deliberately chosen topic.
间接引用常用的一些句式：
According to the Grimms,
It has been affirmed that...
Some believe, along with him that...
Another view contends that...
He insisted that...
He pointed out that...
In the opinion of at least one critic...
The author stated that...
The research revealed that...
The practice verifies the experiment that...
那么，到底什么样的间接引用才是足够的，可以接受的呢？请仔细研究下面的例子：
原文如下：
Addressing a commemoration meeting held in Beijing Monday to mark the 30th anniversary of SinoU.S. Shanghai Communiqué, Chinese Vice Premier Qian Qichen said that the development of the SinoU.S. relations have not only benefited the two peoples but also promoted peace, stability and prosperity of the AsiaPacific region and the world at large. The anniversary is of great significance as the Shanghai Communique ended 22 years of separation between China and the U.S., and started a new age in the SinoU.S. communication. Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Kong Quan said in Beijing Thursday, that he hoped the two countries would increase their trust in each other and their cooperation over the next thirty years.
下面是多个间接引用（paraphrase）的版本，有的属于剽窃，有的则是符合规范、可以接受的引用格式。
Plagiarism: Chinese Vice Premier Qian Qichen said in a communiqué marking the anniversary of 22 years of SinoU.S. relations that these relations have not only benefited the two peoples but also promoted peace, stability and prosperity of the AsiaPacific region and the world at large.
Acceptable: As reported in the Peoples News on February 21, 2002, the 30th anniversary of SinoU.S. relations, Chinese Vice Premier Qian Qichen said that the relationship between the U.S. and China has “promoted peace, stability and prosperity” and benefited the region and the world. The Chinese Foreign Ministry expressed hope that increased trust and cooperation would continue.
Acceptable: In a speech marking the anniversary of 30 years of SinoU.S. relations, Chinese Vice Premier Qian Qichen stated that these relations have benefited both countries by promoting “peace, stability and prosperity”.
可以看出，间接引用仅仅替换几个字是不够的，可以使用同义词，也可以变换句子结构。更重要的是，需要减少原文的信息量，只集中展现原文中最重要的信息。这当然要建立在作者自己理解的基础上。在这个基础上，用作者自己的话表达出信息并不太困难。
因此，使用间接引用时大家必须注意：
1. 必须清楚易懂；
2. 必须涵盖原文中所有的要点；
3. 不能出现原文没有表达的任何观点或信息；
4. 不能重复原文作者的句子结构和重要词汇；
5. 要与论文的上下文有机地融合在一起，就是要合乎逻辑；
6. 要用被动语态，而不是主动语态。
三、避免抄袭
无论引用什么文献，无论采用何种引用方式，都必须准确、完整地提供引用出处，否则，就会构成“剽窃” （plagiarism）。
使用别人的原话而不注明出处的，就是抄袭剽窃。按照Joseph Gilbaldi（1999）在《MLA科研论文写作规范》里所说，“剽窃” 包括三方面：
1. 在论文中重复（repeat）了别人的措辞或特别贴切的用语而没有予以适当的注释。
2. 在论文中转述（paraphrase）了别人的论述而没有予以适当的确认。
3. 在论文中陈述（present）了别人的思想方法而没有予以适当的承认。
从上文表述可以看出，抄袭剽窃指的是在没有给予恰当合适的标注和感谢的情况下使用他人的观点或文字。他人的观点或表达这些观点的文字归属于第一次提出它们的人，因此，当论文的作者在自己的论文中或以直接或以间接的方式纳入其他作者的观点或文字时，需要准确完整地表明文献来源。引而注为引用，引而不注则为抄袭剽窃。
所以，为了避免剽窃大家需要：
1. 把论文中用到的转述或摘要内容用注释的方法编写出来。
2. 凡是从知道出处的资料中得来的观点都要标明作者姓名。
3. 引用的材料都要用引号或缩进的方式标明。
4. 用注释标明从别处借用的事实和数据。
5. 凡是在论文中用到的借用资料都要列在论文后面的文献目录或参考书目中。
通常情况下，需要表明引用出处的内容有他人的观点以及文字、只有一个出处或出处数量有限的资料、数字数据等，而一些基本常识或一些众所周知的习语谚语等则无须说明出处。
假设有这样一段原文：
Still the telephone was only a convenience, permitting Americans to do more casually and with less effort what they had already been doing before. (Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience, Page 391)
那么下面三种情况均为抄袭：
情况1：
The telephone was a convenience, permitting Americans to do more casually and with less effort what they had already been doing before.
逐词逐句地照抄原文，且不用引号，属明显抄袭。
情况2：
The telephone was a convenience, enabling Americans to do more casually and with less efforts what they had already been doing before.
这里仅改动了原文中的个别词语，也没用引号，仍为抄袭。
情况3：
Daniel J. Boorstin argus that the telephone was only a convenience, permitting Americans to do more casually and with less efforts what they had already been doing before.2
这里虽然注明了出处，但是引用原文内容却没有用引号，所以仍然是抄袭。
避免抄袭的方法就是引用的内容前后要加引号，并注明原文的出处。行文的导入语及个人评述部分不必用引号。如下面的例子就是没有抄袭之嫌的正确做法：
Daniel J. Boorstin has noted that most Americans considered the telephone as simply “a convenience”, an instrument that allowed them “to do more casually and with less efforts what they had already been doing before.”2
第二节毕业论文的文献标注
毕业论文写作过程中还有个重要的环节就是文献的标注。文献标注(documentation) 指的就是用注释 (notes) 和开列文献目录 (bibliographizing) 的方式对论文中使用他人的信息资料（包括直接引用和间接引用，第一手和第二手资料）的内容和出处做出详细的说明。它既可以表示论文作者对所引信息资料的承认与感谢，也可以增强材料来源的可信度，同时还能方便读者对材料来源的核对。标注文献不仅是学术论文学术性、科学性和规范性的重要体现，也是论文作者严谨科学态度的具体反映。
一、文献标注格式
就英文学术论文格式而言，有三种流行的格式：
1. 芝加哥格式（Chicago Manual, The Chicago Manual style）
芝加哥 格式，既有一定的权威性，又不限于某个特定学科。因此，人文科学、社会科学以及许多其他专业的本科生和研究生写论文时，经常使用这种格式。语言和文学均属人文学科，所以，芝加哥论文格式应成为英语语言文学专业本科生首选的毕业论文格式。
芝加哥论文格式的基本体系是“注释+文献目录”，可以具体区分为“脚注+文献目录”或“尾注+文献目录”。
2. 现代语言学会格式（MLA, The Modern Language Association Style）
现代语言学会论文格式多使用于社会科学和自然科学，现在也广泛使用于人文学科。该格式的基本体系为“文中夹注+文献目录”。
3. 美国心理学会格式（APA, Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association）
美国心理学会论文格式的使用范围与现代语言学会论文格式基本相同，但自然科学更倾向于用美国心理学会论文格式。其基本体系是“文中夹注+文献目录”。
值得注意的是，上述三种格式的使用范围在实际操作时并没有绝对的限制。但如果选择了某种格式，作者就必须始终如一地按照该格式的体系和细节办事，不能随意改动。
二、正文中的注释
注释大体可以分为三种形式：夹注（parenthetical reference）、脚注 (footnote) 和尾注(endnote)。
夹注，也称作段中注、文中注或者随文注，即在需要注释的文字后面直接加圆括号，标注所引用文字的出处。这种注释形式的好处是清晰、简便、准确，但大家千万要注意的是：圆括号中所提供的文字出处信息，必须与后面参考文献中所列作者书目一致。
脚注，也称页末注或页下注。顾名思义，脚注出现在需要注释的文字本页的正下方，用一条横线隔开。脚注与文本的最后一行之间约有四行的空隙，而且，脚注本身不空行，但两个脚注之间应空一行。
尾注，也称集中注或篇尾注。尾注一般出现在文本的后面，另起一页，页码还是按全文顺序排。
脚注和尾注按它们在正文中出现的顺序连续标出，在正文处用系列阿拉伯数字和上标的形式标示。下面结合具体例子说明三种学术论文格式的文献标注方式，例如：
Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion.1 （芝加哥论文格式）
脚注和尾注：
1. Hazel Henderson, Paradigms in Progress: Life Beyond Economics (Indianapolis: Knowledge Systems, 1992), 62.
每条脚注和尾注都用一个新的数字，即使只有一条，也要用数字1。
夹注，置于正文中。如：
Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion. (Gribbin 2)（MLA格式）
Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion. (Gribbin,1984, p.2)（APA格式）
从上例可以看出，芝加哥论文格式的引文注释要求采用脚注和尾注方式。先在正文中加注点的右上方按顺序分别标上阿拉伯数码（superscript）。数码一般放在词、词组或句子之末，并且在除破折号以外的标点之外，不留空格，不加下划线，不划圈。如果采用脚注，则在加注点当页正文之下用一横线隔开，然后按对应数码依次附上注文（即使当页只有一个加注点也要编上对应数码）。如果采用的是尾注，则在整篇正文之后加注点的对应数码依次附上注文。脚注和尾注的内容和书写格式完全相同。注释包括作者（编者、译者）姓名、卷数、出版商、出版年代、引文所在页码。此外，大家还需要注意，尾注格式与正文后的“参考文献”格式有两点不同：一是首行缩进5个英文字母的空格，即缩进5格再标明1、2等；其二是作者姓名的写法不同：尾注是名在前，姓氏在后；而参考文献是姓氏在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开。
而MLA格式和APA格式通常采用夹注的形式。其中MLA格式的圆括号内容包含两部分内容，即作者姓氏和页码，中间不用逗号隔开，页码前面不用“p.”； APA格式的圆括号内容包含三部分内容，即作者姓氏、出版年份、页码，各部分间用逗号隔开，页码前面用“p.”。没有作者的以著作的第一个词（冠词除外）置于作者姓氏的位置，这点三种格式相同。
实际上，引文注释的格式相当复杂，就拿文中注括号内作者姓氏的写法来说，也不止一种。如果作者是两个人，则需在姓氏之间加上and 或 &；如果作者是三人及三人以上，则只需写出第一位作者的姓氏，其余作者用 “et al.”表示。
如果连续使用同一来源的两条以上引文，除了第一条引文外，其后的其他引文都用“Ibid.(出处同上)”加圆括号表明即可。如果作者、书（文章）名和页码都相同可以直接写（Ibid.）；如果仅页码不同，可以写（Ibid., 240）。如果连续引用同一来源的引文被别的来源的引文隔开，则仍然要标明原来的引文来源。
三、参考文献的格式
参考文献目录反映论文使用过的所有文献的信息。参考文献是一篇毕业论文不可缺少的组成部分，不仅反映了论文作者的科学态度和论文具有真实、广泛的科学依据，也反映出该论文的起点和深度。
参考文献部分应单独占一页或多页。如果有尾注，要把书目放在尾注后。如果有附录，要放在附录前。
三种论文格式的参考文献目录的标题用词有别。芝加哥论文格式用“Bibliography”，MLA格式用“Works Cited”，APA格式用“References”，不管使用哪个，都要居中打印。
罗列论文参考书目时，需要注意的是，在论文中引用的所有资料都必须列入参考文献中。
参考文献的录入要完整、规范，符合一定的体例。每一个条目所包含的信息有：文献作者、作品名称、出版地、出版社和出版年份。如果没有出版日期，也没有版权日期，则标出 “n.d.”。一般不再标出信息所在的具体页码，因为正文中已经标出了页码。如果没有出版地，则标出“n.p.”。出版地一般具体到城市。
参考文献目录中的每一个条目首行不缩进，一行不够另起一行时缩进5个空格。所有条目都应以相同的缩排出现。
参考文献目录一般不用序号，每一条目都是作者的姓在前，名在后，按照英语字母的顺序排列；汉语则按照汉语拼音或笔画顺序排列。如果第一个字母相同时，按第二个字母的顺序排列，以此类推。若兼有中英文参考书目，应分开排列。可将汉语资料排前，也可将英文资料排在前面。如果没有作者，则按书名或篇名的第一个单词开始，冠词不可放在开头。
如果连续引用同一作者的多部作品，则按作品标题的英文字母或出版年份的先后顺序来排列。在首次以后出现的作者处用三个英文连字符（hyphen）代替，再加上作品名称和出版信息。
每一个作品都要给予一个标识码在方括号里，常用的标识码有：
文件类型标识代码
专著[M]
会议录，论文集[C]
报纸文章[N]
期刊文章[J]
学位论文[D]
（续表）
文件类型标识代码
报告[R]
专利[P]
专著、论文集中的析出文献[A]
标准编号，标准名称[S]
其他未说明的文件[Z]
电子文献中光盘图书[M/CD](monograph on CDROM)
网上期刊[J/OL](serial online)
联机网上数据库[DB/OL](database online)
磁带数据库[DB/MT] (database on magnetic tape)
磁盘软件[CP/DK] (computer program on disk)
网上电子公告[EB/OL] (electronic bulletin board online)
以下是参考书目的格式，具体说明如何安排各种资料的种种项目：
1. 独著，论文集等
Ellis, Rod.Understanding of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1994.
Jenkins, A.The Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins [C]. London: Kessinger Publishing, 2010.
斯坦贝克. 愤怒的葡萄[Z]. 上海: 上海译文出版社, 2007.
严明. 大学专门用途英语(ESP) 教学理论与实践研究 [M]. 哈尔滨: 黑龙江大学出版社, 2008.
注：英文参考文献作品题目要用斜体（书写时用下划线）；外文文献作者姓氏在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开。
2. 合著（二名作者）
Davies, A. & A. Brown. Dictionary of Language Testing [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
马知恩, 周义仓. 传染病动力学数学建模与研究[M]. 北京: 科学出版社, 2004.
注：当文献作者是两位时，外文文献作者用and或&引出第两位作者，中文文献两位作者用 “,”隔开。外文文献的两位作者，第一位作者姓名需要倒置，即姓在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开，另一位不需要倒置。
3. 合著（三名及三名以上作者）
Gates, P. S., et al. Fantasy Literature for Children and Young Adults[M]. Lanham: the Scarecrow Press, 2003.
石佑启,杨志坤,黄新波.论行政体制改与行政法制[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2009.
注：如果文献作者是三位及以上时，中文可以在第一作者后用“等”表示其他作者，英语用“et al.”或“and others”表示。当然，也可以把三位作者都写出来，中间用逗号隔开。但是，需要注意的是，第一位作者姓名需要倒置。
4. 著作（没有作者）
Concise Oxford English Dictionary, The [Z]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
古兰经[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2009.
注：如果外文文献是以冠词开头的，则需把冠词放在作品名后，用逗号隔开。冠词放后是为了按书名的字母顺序排列。
5. 合著（没有作者）
（1） 以单位名称开始
American Telephone and Telegraph Company.Annual Report [M]. NewYork: American Telephone and Telegraph Company, 1982.
中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. 现代汉语词典[Z]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 2012.
（2） 以标题开始
Annual Report [M]. By American Telephone and Telegraph Company. NewYork: American Telephone and Telegraph Company, 1982.
现代汉语词典[Z].中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室.北京:商务印书馆,2012.
6. 著作（一卷以上）
Graves, Robert.The Chinese Mythology [M]. 2 vols. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1995.
(引用的资料来自著作的两卷)
Lyons, J. Semantics (Volume 1) [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
（引用的资料只来自其中的一卷）
余光中.余光中集(第七卷)[M].天津:百花文艺学出版社,2004.
7. 著作（一个作者，有版次标记）
Downie, N. M. Basic Statistical Methods (3rd edition) [M]. New York: Harpter & Row, 2002.
周衍柏.理论力学教程(第三版)[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2009.
注：edition也可用ed.替代。
8. 选集的作者
Lappin, S.(ed.).The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory [C]. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1997.
Greenbaum, S., et al. (eds.). The Kentucky Tragedy: A Problem in Romantic Attitudes [C]. London: Longman, 1989.
黄世坦(编).回忆吴宓先生[C].西安:陕西人民出版社,1990.
注：“ed.”代表editor，“eds.”代表editors，即编者。
9. 编著和析出文献（既有作者又有编者）
Martin, J. R. Mentoring Semogenesis: “Genre Based” Literacy Pedagogy [A]. In F. Christie (ed.) Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social Process [C]. London: Cassell, 1999.
袁莉.关于翻译主体研究的构想[A].张柏然,许钧(编).面向二十一世纪的译学研究[C].北京:商务印书馆,2002.
注：文章标题前后可加可不加引号。
10. 译著
Feng, Youlan. A History of Chinese Philosophy [M]. Trans. Derk Bodde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.
波伏娃,西蒙娜.第二性[M].郑克鲁译.上海:上海译文出版社,2011.
如果译者的内容（引言等）在论文中被引用，译者的姓名则放在文献目录条的开始：
Bodde, Derk. trans. A History of Chinese Philosophy [M]. By Feng Youlan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.
注：“trans.” 代表translator(s)，即译者。
11. 译著（没有作者或编者）
AngloSaxon chronicle, The [M]. Trans. G. N. Garmonsway. London: J. M. Dent and sons, Ltd., 1953.
12. 重印书籍
Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock [M]. London: 1920; rpt. New York: Random House, 1970.
注：“rpt.”代表reprinted，即重印。
13. 期刊文章
主要责任者．文献题名[J]．刊名，出版年份，卷号(期号).
Dougall, B. Mc. Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle [J]. Chinese Translators Journal, 2007 (5).
王佐良.翻译中的文化比较[J].中国翻译,1984(1).
14. 学位论文
主要责任者．文献题名[D]．保存地：保存单位，年份.
Xie, Y. Representation of L2 Motivational Self System with Beginning Chinese Language Learners at College Level in the United States: Heritage and Nonheritage Language Learners [D]. Lynchburg: Liberty University, 2011.
曹莉.中国大学生英语四、六级考试作文中动名词搭配错误分析[D].武汉:华中科技大学,2007.
15. 报纸文章
主要责任者．文献题名[N]．报纸名，出版日期(版次)．
French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China [N].Atlantic Weekly,19870815.
谢希德．创造学习的思路[N]．人民日报，19981225(10)．
16. 研究报告
主要责任者．文献题名[R]．报告地：报告会主办单位，年份．
冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院,1997.
17. 专利
专利所有者．专利题名[P]．专利国别：专利号，发布日期.
姜锡洲.一种温热外敷药制备方案[P].中国专利:881056073,19890726.
18. 条例
颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期.
中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991.
19. 国际、国家标准
标准代号，标准名称［S］．出版地：出版者，出版年．
GB/T 16159—1996，中华人民共和国学位条例［S］．北京：中国标准出版社，1996．
20. 讲座与讲话
Atwood. Margaret.“Silencing the Scream” [Z]. Boundaries of the Imagination Forum. MLA Convention. Royal York Hotel, Toronto. 29 Dec. 1993.
21. 未出版的材料
Smith, Sonia.“Shakespeares Dark Lady Revisited” [Z]. Unpublished Essay, 1993.
22. 电子文章
主要责任者．电子文献题名［电子文献及载体类型标识］．电子文献的出版或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期(任选)．
Hakuta, K. 1999. A Critical Period for Second Language Acquisition? A Status Review [OL]. www. standford. edu/ hakuta/ docs/ creticalperiod/ PDF.
Pajares, F. 2002. Overview of social cognitive theory and of selfefficiency. http:// www. emory. edu/EDUCATION/ mfp/ eff. html.
McEnery, T., A. Potts & R. Xiao. 2013.London 2012 Games Media Impact Study [EB/ OL].http://www. gov.uk/ government/ publications/ london2012mediaimpactstudy, 20140723.
李长栓. 同声传译中如何应对语速较快的发言[Z]. 李长栓的博客（http://gsti. bfsu.edu. cn? q=node/367 ）
万锦. 中国大学学报文摘（1983—1993）. 英文版[DB / CD]. 北京：中国大百科全书出版社， 1996.
注：网络上的电子文献都被称为“网上电子公告”。其作为参考文献时的格式是：作者. 文章题名[EB/ OL]. (上网日期) [引用日期] 引用网址. 如果“上网日期”不清楚，则可不写，但引用日期要写上。作者姓名不清楚， 可以写“匿名”（英文为anonym）。
23. 光盘图书
Braunmuller, A. R.,The Oxford English Dictionary[Z]. CDROM. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
24. 网上图书
Hawthorne, Nathaniel.TwiceTold Tales[M]. Ed. George Parsons Lathrop. Boston: Houghton, 1987. 1 Mar. 1998 http://eldred. ne. mediaone, net/ nh/ ttt. html.
Matsumura, M. 1995. “Voices for Evolution”, (Online) Available: http://www. natcenscied. org/ voicont. html. 20000417.
季羡林:牛棚杂忆.http: // www. goldnts. com/ book/ 55/ 105428. html. 20000417.
注：内容一般包括作者姓名（姓在前）；书名（斜体）；如果有编者、译者可用自然顺序注明编者（ed.）或译者(trans.)姓名；出版信息；上网时间与网址。
25. 个人或专业网站
Dawe, James. Jane Austen Page. 15 Sept. 1998.http://nyquist. ee. ualberta. ca/ ～dawe/ austen. html.
注：网站制作者的姓名（姓在前）开头，之后是网站题目（用下划线或斜体），再后是上网时间与网址。如果是专业网站，一般是以网站标题开头，然后注明网站的制作时间、资助单位（如果有的话）等。
上述只是针对不同的具体情况将论文的格式进行了介绍。事实上，芝加哥论文格式、MLA论文格式和APA论文格式之间还有差别，比如MLA论文格式常用缩写（U=University, P=Press等），而APA论文格式与其他两个的出版年号位置不同。如果再结合不同的论文格式将不同的具体情况一一列出的话，内容将更加繁杂。不同的期刊、不同的院校对于论文的格式要求都是不同的。对于初学者来说，最稳妥的办法就是逐条、逐项对照使用。
第十章毕业论文的文法要素
第十章毕业论文的文法要素
第一节毕业论文的基调
毕业论文写作的整体基调应该是严肃的，这是由学术研究的严肃性和学术论文写作的正式性所决定的。严肃性应主要体现在作者行文的严谨性、研究课题本身的重要性、作者探讨问题时的客观态度、阐发主观意见时留有余地，并读者保持适当的距离，以及客观的说服态度等方面。
毕业论文属于正式文体，学生在撰写毕业论文时以采用适度的正式文体或中性偏正式的文体为宜。
正式文体与非正式文体的差异通过下列表格加以说明：
正式文体中性文体非正式（口语）文体
语句句子相对较长；倾向于使用较长的复杂句、并列句、平衡句和圆周句；不用缺少主要句子成分的省略句。句子长度适中，每句平均字数在15～25之间；可用并列句、平衡句和圆周句。句子短而简单；多为“主句+动词+宾语”结构；极少用平衡结构和圆周句；缺少主要句子成分的省略句极为常见。
用词用词广泛，较多使用法语、拉丁语和希腊语借词以及抽象词；不用方言词和俚语词；基本不用截短词、紧缩形式。多使用普通词，但也可以使用文雅词和口语词；抽象词和具体词并用；也可使用截短词、紧缩形式和俚语词。用词限制在普通词和口语词之间，多用基本词和常用词；截短词和紧缩形式很常见。
基调基调严肃；不试图建立与读者之间的亲近关系；不说过头话或伤及别人。态度既可以是严肃的，也可以是轻快的；与读者之间的关系亲近但极少紧密。非正式交谈的基调；态度既可以是严肃的，也可以是轻快的；与读者之间的关系较近且常常是亲密的。
一般来说，理论性和学术性较强的论文，多采用正式文体，一般性论文，多采用非正式文体；严肃课题，多采用正式文体，严肃性不强的课题，多采用非正式文体。
一、毕业论文的措辞原则
措辞（diction）是指对词语的选择和使用。毕业论文在语言上应力求正式、准确、客观、严密、简练、富有逻辑性。具体来说，要注意以下几个方面：
1. 正式
首先，正式文体中应避免较多使用截短词和紧缩形式。
截短词，比如：phone代替telephone，flu代替influenza，maths代替mathematics，lab代替laboratory。
紧缩形式有两种情况：一是紧缩词，比如：maam代替madam；二是紧缩句式，比如:wont代替will not，dont代替do not。
其次，要用心选词。例如，正式写作时，表示“很多”，一般不用a lot，而用several，various，numerous等；“不多”避免使用not many，可选用few。避免过度使用very，可用highly，extremely，rather，quite等来替换。表达同一意思时，尽量使用词语而不是短语，因后者较前者更口语化，且不够精炼。例如：用investigate比look into更为正式，用determine 比make up ones mind更为精炼。使用标准表达方式，避免使用口语和俚语。例如escape比go into the lam更正规，succeed比make it更标准。
2. 客观
除致谢外，作者在论文中表达自己观点时应尽量避免使用第一和第二人称，否则会削弱文章的客观性。最好选择使用名词、第三人称或无人称结构，如the author, the researcher, the writer, this article studies/is aimed to, it gives an analysis of, it is concluded, it can be seen that, it has been pointed out that 等。
避免使用带有歧视色彩的词语，最常见的是人称性别歧视，如：As a student learns to read more critically, he usually writes more clearly, too. 可修改为：As students learn to read more critically, they usually writes more clearly, too. 或者As a student learns to read more critically, he or she usually writes more clearly, too. 或者修改为：Critical reading leads to clear writing，以避开人称代词。
避免使用带有感情色彩的语言，如great, marvelous等。
此外，在表述职业时要学会使用一些中性词语：如chairperson替代chairman，homemaker替代housewife，artisan替代craftsman等。
3. 规范
论文中的单词拼写方式，是英式英语还是美式英语，通篇要保持统一。另外，还要注意单词的大小写、换行时单词的分割原则、数字、标点符号、作品标题和人名的书写规范等，这些内容我们在后面进行介绍。
4. 简练
虽然毕业论文中的许多专业术语多为“大词”“长词”，但这并不违背其言简意赅的特点。毕业论文写作提倡清晰、直接地表达论点，避免罗嗦和过度使用“大词”。大家写毕业论文要注意、讲究表达的简练，即economy。要记住，单凭用词的多少并不能显示你学识的高低，也不能说明你的科研能力和对材料的处理能力。要时刻警惕冗长的用词，尤其不要多用以下这样的填补词语(filler words)：
with regard to = regarding/as for
in the matter of = concerning
based on the fact that = according to
at this point of time = just before
in the process of being = during
by way of = instead
另外，还要时刻注意不要重复和赘言，不要使用类似progressively improve, gradually decrease, completely unanimous, necessary requirement, brief summary的表述。
下面给大家列举一些常用和典型的结构：
bulky/wordyconcise
in spite of the fact thatalthough
on a regular basisregularly
in all other casesotherwise
bring to a considerationconsider
afford an opportunity toallow
（续表）
in conjunction withwith
after this has been donethen
the question as to whetherwhether
in view of the fact thatseeing that
on account of the fact thatbecause
owing to the fact thatsince
in view of the foregoing statementtherefore
inasmuch assince
a number ofseveral
in regard toabout
in all casesalways
in order thatto
in most casesusually
a small number ofa few
for the purpose offor
in the vicinity ofnear
in connection withabout
in the majority of instancesusually
each and every oneeach
in the foreseeable futuresoon
as to whether or notwhether
a great dealmuch
with the exception ofexcept
have no other choicemust
in a hasty mannerhastily
除此之外，在毕业论文中要多用专业术语。比如：diction，syntax就远比word choice，the rules of grammar简练。
二、毕业论文的句法原则
写作时，一个句子的好坏不仅取决于其语法是否正确，还在于其修辞和文体效果。一个好的句子可以通过结构的贴切和行文的流畅使作者的意思表达强而有力，效果显著。
1. 句法特点
由于毕业论文的理论性、逻辑性、严谨性，大家在写作时尽量挖掘和利用各种句法结构来表达思想的逻辑关系，简单句、并列句、复合句、松散句、圆周句、倒装句、平衡句等都要用到。
① 并列句（parallel sentence）
当一个句子包含两个以上句法功能相同的词句时（一般是由并列连词来连接），这个句子就是含有并列结构的句子。如果一个句子的谓语动词或谓语动词短语是一个并列结构，这个句子就成了并列句。例如：
Promote physical culture and build up the peoples health.
Not only everything he had had taken away from him, but also his German citizenship was taken away from him.
② 复合句（compound sentence）
复合句是指由句子充当某一个或某几个句子成分的句子，这些充当句子成分的句子根据句法功能可以称为主语从句、同位语从句、定语从句、宾语从句和状语从句等。例如：
Let me know which of the books is the best.
The assumption is that things will improve.
③ 平衡句（balanced sentence）
如果一个句子含有两个意义相对的并列结构或并列从句，那么这个句子就叫平衡句。平衡句不仅可以起到强调和避免句式单调的作用，而且还能体现语言的均衡美。例如：
Many are called but few are chosen.
Beauty without grace is the hook without the bait.
In Platos opinion man was made for philosophy; in Bacons opinion philosophy was made of man.
④ 圆周句（periodic sentence）
如果一个句子的主要思想是递次趋近句尾出现的，而且直到句末整个句子才完整，那么这个句子就叫圆周句。例如：
Jane left the room, left the house, left the village, left the place she had been living for many years.
Hate is based on fear, based on misunderstanding, based on egoism, based on the attitude that I am always right.
圆周句也称为掉尾句或尾重句，这种句子的特点是主要信息出现在最后，让读者留下深刻印象，使句子中的主要信息或其实质部分得到充分的强调。
⑤ 松散句（loose sentence）
松散句是一种组织结构松弛的句子，它的组成部分可以自由地拆散，在句中的某些地方可随意停顿，且语法上具有一定的完整性。这种句式中，主要信息或其实质部分较早出现，随后附加修饰语或补充细节。例如：
The course was not very difficult, althoughI didnt receive a high grade.
She was offered an academic title after winning the game, according to newspaper reports.
长句由于有较多的修饰成分，所以便于表达复杂的思想和充分阐述作者的观点。另外，大部分并列句、平衡句和圆周句都是相对较长的句子，它们均有明显的强调功能。所以，本科生在撰写毕业论文时应多用长句。
2. 句法结构错误
好的作品势必是形式反映内容；反过来说，就是内容依赖形式。意义不能与语言表达分离，也就是说，内容与文体风格是不可分割的。效果不好的句子结构往往暴露出逻辑上的错误或思想上的残缺。因此，大家必须注意一些易犯的句法结构的错误。
① 过多使用不及物动词,尤其是使用这种词的填补结构，如there are, there is, it is等，会使表达无力、累赘，甚至出现语法错误。例如：
It is so strong and oppressive that Tess cannot free from the influence of the social convention and moral value of that time.如果改为：Tess cannot free from the influence of the social invention and moral value of that time. 句子就明显干脆、有力多了。
② 连写句（runon sentences）：连写句就是把两个以上完整的意思放在一起，没有表明其分界。其实，这种句子是标点错误，就是两个以上完整的意思搅和起来，没有用适当的标点符号将它们分开。例如：
Due to their cultural background and national customs, English and Chinese have different expressions in terms of culture, it is manifested in spoken English.
这个句子可以修改为：
Due to their cultural background and national customs, English and Chinese have different expressions in terms of culture, which is manifested in spoken English.
Due to their cultural background and national customs, English and Chinese have different expressions in terms of culture. This difference is manifested in spoken English.
③ 残缺句（sentence fragments）：残缺句是不能表达完整意思，缺少主语、限定动词或主句的一组词，却用句号标点成句子。例如：
He feels very guilty about doing this. Because he has been punished for doing such kinds of deeds.
修改为：
He feels very guilty about doing this because he has been punished for doing such kinds of deeds.
He has been punished for doing such kinds of deeds. So he feels very guilty about doing this.
再如：
As early as 1885 an American educator complained against them about their tales. Saying that the folk tales describe everything too true to life—good and bad—in the Middle Ages.
修改为：
As early as 1885 an American educator complained against them about their tales, saying that the folk tales describe everything too true to life—good and bad—in the Middle Ages.
As early as 1885 an American educator complained against them about their tales. He said that the folk tales describe everything too true to life—good and bad—in the Middle Ages.
除了上述明显的句法结构错误外，大家还要注意句式罗嗦的问题。比如下面这些表达就应该尽量避免：
It is not impossible to imagine that...
A not unlikely cause could be that...
It seems that there can be little doubt that...
In light of the fact that...
It is considered that...
It would thus appear that...
如果用apparently, because, the cause may be代替就可以达到更简明、直接的效果。
必要的时候，我们需要简化句子结构，减少不必要的字词，达到简练的目的。比如：
The administration is responsible for soliciting, collecting and distributing graduate research grants so that graduate students have the ability to find employment by doing research projects.
可改为：
The administration solicits, collects and distributes graduate research grants for graduate students.
三、毕业论文的语法原则
用于毕业论文的时态主要是过去时和现在时，我们可以在二者之间选择使用。但是，必须按照科学研究的道德准则和约定俗成的规范来决定选择哪一种。
1. 动词的时态
① 叙述历史事件时，用一般过去时。
It was a dynamic, confident time for the English, who were sending their merchant ships around the world and plundering Spanish ships returning from the New World with gold and goods...
② 描述一部作品的时代背景，或者叙述一位作家的生平经历和创作故事时，用一般过去时。例如：
Jane Austen was born on 16 December, 1775, at the rectory in the village of Steventon, near Basingstoke, in Hampshire. The seventh of eight children of the Reverend George Austen and his wife, Cassandra, she was educated mainly at home and never lived apart from her family. She had a happy childhood amongst all her brothers and the other boys who lodged with the family and whom Mr. Austen tutored. To amuse themselves, the children wrote and performed plays and characters, and even as a little girl Jane was encouraged to write...
③ 在描述历史上一个文学流派时，用一般过去时。例如：
The critical realists usually tried to explain the social conflicts in terms of morality and ethics, and put forward reform and reconciliation as the way to solve acute class contradictions. Their great contribution to world literature lay chiefly in their exposure and criticism of the bourgeoisie and in their sympathetic description of the small, common people of the lower classes.
④ 介绍或者评价某一部作品，或者评价某作家所使用的语言技巧时，用一般现在时。例如：
The best part of the novel is the realistic account of the successful struggle of Robinson alone against the pitiless forces of nature on the island...In describing Robinsons life on the island, Defoe glorifies human labour...
⑤ 调查（实验）报告类论文中，描述调查（实验）过程用一般过去时，分析、讨论调查（实验）结果用一般现在时。
When the signals arrived at the object surface, the reflected echo wave appeared, which was got by receiving antenna and then retransmitted into the mixer through the circulator.
One solution is proposed in this paper. Now the design task has been finished, and the debugging and testing of the circuit is going on.
⑥ 应用科学研究的时态：用现在时来报告或引用别人已经出版的内容，以表示对别人的尊重；用过去时陈述自己的研究过程，以表示谦虚。
Nunan(1993) defines the taskbased approach as “any classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form”.
The teacher conducted the classroom activities through deliberately tasks in the experiment class—Class 024.
⑦ 叙述文学作品的时态：用现在时叙述文学作品中的事件，以表示多次阅读的重复行为。
After his casual account of his previous sexual experience, Tess feels that Angels wrong doing is just the same as her own.
⑧ 论述理论或哲学时的时态：既可用现在时也可用过去时，现在时表示的是所述著作迄今仍是同一观点。
Reference proposed concept of occupancy degree, by which membership functions are automatically defined and fuzzy rules are generated from given experimental data pairs without preliminary explicit linguistic information.
2. 动词的语态
在专业论文写作中，经常使用被动语态从而避免使用第一人称，即使这样，论文中应该尽量用主动语态。过多使用被动语态，会让句子晦涩难懂，降低可读性，还会让读者感到论文缺乏力量，甚至会使人怀疑你在逃避责任。
被动语态在下列情况下适合：
① 出于语态客观的目的。毕业论文是学术论文，追求客观真实，除了需在人称上多选择第三人称以产生客观距离、增强说服力外，在语态上还应使用被动语态，以减少主观色彩。例如：
The word bilingual is frequently used and understood without posing any problem even in Japanese as a loan word. The word is commonly used as if the concept is taken into granted...Firstly, bilingualism is treated on two levels simultaneously as individual and societal bilingualism or bilingual individuals and bilingual societies.
② 用于不考虑动作执行者的情况。
During the 1800s, the time period in which Jane Eyre was written and the setting of the novel was provided, women were stereotyped as being “submissive, dependent, beautiful, but ignorant”.
③ 用于需要用后置修饰语的情况。
Stationed with other girls like herself, under the watchful and unforgiving eye of Rev. Brocklehurst, she is further made aware of all that she lacks.
④ 用于使写作多样化。
除了时态、语态，大家在写作时还要注意主谓一致、垂悬结构等语法问题。
四、毕业论文的语篇特点
一篇毕业论文是一个有机的统一体，论文中的每一个段落都是相互关联的。论文的语篇特点体现为统一性、连贯性、衔接性和强调性四个方面。
1. 统一性。统一性主要通过把论文中的观点精心组织为各个段落，每个段落的观点再组织为一系列相互关联的句子来实现。要取得统一性，一个段落里的所有句子都必须与话题句中的制约思想密切相关。如果在一个段落里写出与话题不相关的句子，就破坏了段落统一性原则。也就是说，一个段落只用来说明一个中心思想，所有的扩展句都应和该中心思想有关，所有与中心思想无关的材料都不应包括在内。
例如：
Born in a small town inCentral China in the early 60s, he grew up to be a famous writer.
这两句话，语法上是正确的，但是逻辑上没有必然联系，违反了句子的统一性原则。如果修改为：
He was born in a small town inCentral China in the early 60s. In his childhood, he was crazy for reading. Later he entered a famous university. In the 80s he became a famous writer. 前后意思就一致了。
例如：
Jane Eyre showed stronger rebellious spirit in Lowood School. (话题句) She was badly treated there. （无关句）She always called her best friend Helen to fight against Mr. Brockleburst. She publicly sassed Mr. Brockleburst. Though she got punishment, she gained admiration from her fellows. So I she resisted only the members in her aunts home, then she, in Lowood, was fighting against wider circumstances. In this plot, Janes friendship with Helen gives us a great impression. From it we can see Jane was a person full of love to others, especially to the kind.（无关句）
这个段落中，划线的句子是与主题句无关的，违背了一致性原则，应该去掉。
2. 连贯性。连贯性指的是文章中句子与句子之间、段落与段落之间、论点与论点之间过渡自然、和谐，富有逻辑性。毕业论文中的所有段落、所有句子或者说所有内容都要很贴切地组织成一个整体。段落里的句子安排清晰、易懂、有条理，全文的所有段落组织得流畅，有逻辑动感。
文章的连贯性需要通过以下手段来实现：过渡词与短语的恰当运用、部分观点的重述和关键词的同义词运用、关键词和短语的重复、平行关系的语法结构的运用、论文中人称的一致以及内容与论据的逻辑组织等。例如：
The adoption of a colonial language, such as English, as the lingua franca by a multiethnic, multinational developing country may serve the purpose of providing an ethnically neutral language for communication. The access to English by developing countries, irrespective of whether they are former colonies or not, facilitates their economic development, particularly their participation in the world capitalist system, as Fishman(1996) points out. However, it raises the issue of equality at the intranational as well as international level.
First of all, the term “lingua franca”, as Phillipson (2000) points out, is somewhat deceptive. It refers to a common language that people use to communicate with each other, and it implies that the language can be accessed by everybody. This hides the inequality between those who have access to the language and those who do not.
The asymmetrical power relationship among the official language in post colonial countries perpetuates social, economic and political inequality, and favors speakers of the colonial languages, at national, subnational and supranational levels.
可以看出，这三段是一个有机统一的整体。宏观上，第一段提出topic sentence，后两段作为supporting details进一步论证。微观上，作者使用一些词汇和语法手段，实现了语篇的连贯。
3. 衔接性。 衔接是取得连贯的一种手段。它指的是话语或篇章中连接句子各部分或较大语篇单位的表层结构特征。如果说连贯是语篇的无形网络，那么衔接就是其有形的网络。大家可以采用多种手段取得论文的衔接。常用的衔接手段有语法手段，如通过指代、替代、省略、时态一致等实现段落的自然衔接；还有各种转折过渡词，以及词汇手段，即利用词汇的重现或词汇的共现来实现段落的前后连贯一致。例如：
Lord of the Flies written by William Golding is a classical work （上义词，回指Lord of the Flies）in the history of English literature after World War Ⅱ. It （代词指称）helped the writer get the Nobel Prize in 1983. But（对照连词） this great book had been refused for 21 times by the publishing house before it came out. It was because people then could not accept this original design of writing. （省略了this novel is, 衔接手段）Different from the realistic novels at that time, this novel is a unique modern allegory.
Allegory（词汇照应手段，连接第一段和第二段）is a kind of literary form, which expresses hidden moral ideas by narration and description. In English literature, the most famous allegory work （后指照应）is The Pilgrims Progress written by Bunyan, who was an English writer in the 17th century. Through describing the sufferings of the Christians on their way to the celestial city, the writer revealed the injustice of laws, trials and magistrates in those days.
Similarly, through...
上文通过使用代词代替名词、使用指示代词代替先前提到的事物、重复关键词、使用过渡词等方法使文章连贯、流畅。
4. 强调性。强调性原则要求把主要内容放在主句中，把次要内容，即解释性说法和细节放在从句中，把同等重要内容用并列结构来表达。在一个段落里，只要是有一系列思想内容的情况就要把它们按逐渐重要的次序来安排，即用层递法来组织。有时，可以用重复法和平行句式以及倒装、强调句型取得强调的效果。例如下文是一段没有强调性的文字：
One cannot choose a family to be born in. So it is faulty for Tess to be born in a poor family. The family dooms her fate. The economic oppression forces her to work for the DUrbervilles. There the young master of the house, Alec DUrberville, seduced her. This is the beginning of Tesss tragedy. Tess does not give in at first and she returns home in disgrace. Later she yields to the poor life and she has to live together with Alec. This puts her in more dangerous situation and her tragedy goes farther.
经过修改，把从属思想放在从句里，把一些句子组织成平行结构和层进式，就成为这样：
If one can choose a family to be born in, it is faulty for Tess to be born in a poor family, which dooms her fate. As the family is poor, the economic oppression forces her work for the DUrbervilles. There, the young master of the house, Alec DUrberville, seduced her. This is the beginning of Tesss tragedy. Although Tess does not give in at first and returns home in disgrace, yielding to the poor life she has to live together with Alec later. This puts her in a more dangerous situation and her tragedy goes farther. The society which is so unjust makes her out as unclean, which in turn as so forcefully put the noose around her neck. It blindly ignores Christian principles, judging her on deeds but not lookingupon her with mercy, and unwilling to forgive her past. This impure society, argues Hardy, punishes the honest and the conscientious. From Tess improper relation again with Alec to her final act of murder, it is obvious that all the supposedly criminal or immoral actions committed by Tess are the consequences of economic conditions as well as the legal, moral and religious standards of bourgeois society, for only the utter poverty of Tess family, the evil crimes of the DUrbervilles, and the double moral standard of the society make it inevitable for her to go to work on the farm and fall into the traps of Alec bitterness over her fate leads up to the murder. She is a victim of economic oppression and social injustice.
修改后的文字明显取得了强调的效果。
5. 完整性。段落的完整性意味着完整的结构和完整的主题。通常，一个完整的扩展段应该有一个主题句，多个支撑句，以及一个或几个结尾句；段落的主题要用细节、解释、论据等充分予以扩展，这样才不会使读者感到有所缺损。例如：
Despite that the communicative approach has been introduced into China since 1990s, the traditional cognitive approach with its modified uptodate version is still prevalent in China. It places the teacher firmly in charge of proceedings, has potential to organize large groups of students efficiently, and also demonstrates the power relations within the classroom, since the teacher is center of what is happening at all times. The result is that a conservativeprofession, out of touch with language acquisition studies, has for many years simply transmitted essentially the same view of how teaching should be organized, and what teachers should be like. The reasons for its durability are as follows: first of all, the approach has corresponded to traditional Chinese mentality of teacher professionalism. Secondly, teacher training is relatively easy, because the techniques that enable the teacher to orchestrate proceedings so well are formulaic through generations of practice.
上文有主题句，也有一些有关主题的信息。但是，作者没有充分扩展自己列出来的两个理由。因此，本段是一个不完整的段落。
五、毕业论文的逻辑原则
毕业论文写作过程中大家除了要注意选词、造句、时态语态等问题外，还要注意自己论文的论证过程。除了要选择运用合适、恰当的论证方法外，还要注意避免逻辑错误，常用的几种错误列举如下：
1. 前提错误
前提错误指的是推论前提未加任何限制或解释，容易使人挑出漏洞。比如“诗歌不可译”这个命题，只能说诗歌中的某些因素如格律、句法、形式等难以在目标语中实现完全对等。如果完全不可译，那么文学翻译的理论和实践岂不是毫无存在的价值了？
2. 仓促结论
仓促结论指的是从个别或几个例子便得出一般性的肯定结论。在撰写教学法方向的论文时，尤其是注意避免这种错误。这也是为什么必须采取实验数据的方法来推断和验证一些教学理论和原则。
3. 因果错误
因果错误指的是错误地认定先后发生的两个事件必然存在因果联系。比如：Religion obviously weakens the political strength of a country. After all, Rome fell after the introduction of Christianity. 罗马的衰落与基督教的传入并无直接必然因果联系，因此，宗教削弱政治统治的推断自然无法站住脚。
4. 前提矛盾
用两个互为矛盾的前提是无法作出正确推理的。比如在探讨认知语用学中的关联理论和文化翻译的关系时，作者认为文化翻译涉及的是文本之外的不同的文化、心理、审美等深层现象，因此无法用一个较为科学的翻译标准来衡量，而另一方面又认为关联理论探讨的是人在交际过程中的深层认知活动，是可以用来诠释同样作为深层交际的文化翻译现象的。这样一来论述就剪不断，理还乱，无法进一步展开。
5. 以“理”压人
以“理”压人就是一味援引权威和专家的话佐证自己的观点。但有时即便是权威也会为人怀疑，这就是为什么在论述时有必要采取多种论证方法。
6. 假设错误
假设错误指论断中的假设被曲解，不符合实际情况。在一篇名为The Innocent Shylock in The Merchant of Venice的文章中，作者谈到夏洛克备受歧视，任人欺凌，但还是时刻维护犹太人的尊严，并不是十足的恶棍，值得同情。
7. 循环论证
循环论证指的是将结论作为前提进行循环论证。最著名的一个例子就是有关上帝是否存在的论断：有人说上帝所以存在是因为圣经上这么说的；当被问及我们为什么要相信圣经的话时，回答：“圣经是上帝的杰作，一定是真的。”
第二节毕业论文的技术细节
一、正确使用标点符号
论文规范不仅仅包括用词、语法、句法等方面的规范，大家还要注意标点符号的规范。
1. 逗号(Comma)
逗号是英语写作中用得最多、也最容易用错的标点符号，用于分隔句内的并列成分或将某些从属结构跟句子的其他部分分隔开来。逗号代表着句子中最逗、最弱的语气停顿，因此不能用来分隔两个完整的句子。
逗号最基本的功能就是使句子意思清楚明了，避免读者误解。
① 用于分隔句子中紧密结合的分句，这些分句有并列连词连接。例如：
I was going to write, but I lost your address.
Prices fell, interests rates fell, and employment figures rose.
但当分句简短、平行，意义又紧密相连时，有时只用逗号不用连词。例如：
I must, I can, I will.
② 用于分隔句子中的其他并列成分。例如：
Change in human biological history is slow, steady and progressive.
③ 用于分隔非限定性定语从句。例如：
Tony changed his mind, which made me very angry.
Its the third in a sequence of three books, the first of which I really enjoyed.
④ 状语从句或短语位于主句之前或句子的中间，用逗号分隔。例如：
Whatever happens, the first important thing is to keep cool.
There is no sense, as far as I can see, in this suggestion.
Inthe meantime, thank you for whatever assistance you are able to furnish.
⑤ 用于分隔同位语成分。例如：
Anna, my best friend, was here last night.
⑥ 用于分隔插入语和句子的其他部分。例如：
Diane has been, as she puts it, enthusiastic about her work.
I wonder, Mrs. Stevens, if you would send my letter of recommendation as soon as possible.
⑦ 用于分隔数字。例如：
2,507Dec.26,2003
2. 句号(Full stop)
① 句号标志着一个句子的结束。当句子以带句点的缩略形式结尾时，不能再加句号。礼貌的请求从形式上看是问句，但从意义上讲并不是问句，所以也可以用句号。例如：
If your resume isnt a winner, its a killer.
Guests began arriving at 5:30 p.m.
Would you please reexamine my account and determine the current balance.
② 句号用于标识各种缩略形式。例如：
Nov.i.e.e.g.etc.
现在，句点在下列情况下通常不用：
DrMrMrsMs
缩略形式全部为大写：GMT, BBC, UN, CCTV
缩略形式的发音为一个单词：NATO, UNESCO, AIDS, WHO
③ 句号还可用作小数点。例如：
21.5percent$95.34
3. 分号(SemiColon)
① 用于连接没有连词的两个并列句。例如：
The wind was blowing; the temperature was frigid; the atmosphere was depressing.
No one is born with knowledge; knowledge must be taught and learned.
therefore, however, hence, nevertheless, moreover, besides, otherwise等是表示关联的副词，前面应该用分号而不是逗号。例如：
Business messages should sound conversational; therefore, familiar words and contractions are often used.
The bank closes its doors at 3 p.m.; however, the ATM is open 24 hours a day.
② 在分句已有逗号分隔的情况下，即使有连词仍用分号，表示更明确的分隔。例如：
When boys ask questions, protest, or challenge the teacher, they are often met with respect and rewards; but when girls engage in exactly the same behavior, they are often met with criticism and punishment.
③ 分号用于列举事物时的分类。例如：
Presenters were Brad Nelson, English Department, University of Minnesota; Mary Hoff, Purdue University; and Colleen Meyers, ITA Program, University of Michigan.
4. 冒号(Colon)
① 冒号的主要作用是引入解释、例证、结论和同位语等。例如：
The secret is this: there are no final exams in real life.
She had three advantages over other candidates: higher education, more experience, and superior communication skills.
Joan and Mary were obviously weary: I got up to go.
② 用于列举事物，常用于namely, such as, as follows等词后面。例如：
Please send me the items indicated below, namely:
birth certificate
passport
correct fee
③ 用冒号引入话语或引语时，比逗号显得正规和强调。例如：
Dr Winter said, “This system can support up to 32 users. It can be used for decision support, computeraided design, and software development operations at the same time.”
④ 用于演讲开始时对听众的称呼后。在美国英语中，事务性书信开头的称呼后也用冒号。冒号也用于表示时间、比例和比赛的比分。例如：
Ladies and gentlemen:
Dear Mr Hutchinson:
The early bus leaves at 5:30 a.m.
The ration of water to rice should be 2:1.
5. 问号(Question mark)
① 用于直接问句或陈述句后，表示问句。但间接引语后不用问号，用句号。例如：
“Where, then, does your happiness lie?” asked the guest.
You are leaving tomorrow?
② 对前面的词或短语的准确性不能肯定时，也可用问号；有时，这个问号放在括号中。例如：
A further semantic (?) problem may be formulated as follows.
6. 感叹号(Exclamation mark)
在感叹词、短语、句子后用于抒发强烈地感情或愿望时用感叹号。例如：
I cant believe the way our team played!
How inconsiderate!
Incredible! Every terminal is down.
7. 引号（Quotation marks）
① 直接引语（或直接引语的部分内容）的两端用双引号，引语中的引语用单引号。例如：
They described themselves as“analytical, curious, independent and reserved”.
In her speech, Mrs Deckman remarked,“I believe it was the poet Robert Frost who said, ‘All the funs in how you say a thing.’”
② 用于引用的单词或短语。例如：
The word“protein” comes from a Greek word that means “of first importance”.
③ 用于报纸和杂志中的文章、书中各章节的题目、短篇故事、报告、诗词和歌曲的题目。例如：
Stevens favorite song is “Five Hundred Miles Away”.
Chapter 2,“Big Bang”, is very fascinating.
8. 方括号（Brackets）
① 用于在引语中标明作者本人的评注。例如：
The teacher said,“I have doubts about his [the Presidents] new ideas.”
② 在圆括号内如果还需要使用括号，则用方括号代替。例如：
From that point on, Thomas Parker simply disappears. (His death [c. 1441] is not officially recorded, but a gravestone marker is mentioned in a 1640 report.)
9. 圆括号（Parenthesis）
同破折号和逗号一样，圆括号也用于分隔句中注释、补充说明或插入的成分。
① 用于标明作为补充信息的数字或词语。例如：
I expect five hundred dollars ($500).
He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.
② 用于在句子中标明列举项目的序号。例如：
We need a telephone operator who can (1) think quickly, (2) remember not to leave people on hold, and (3) handle complaints from the public.
③ 只有当括号内为整个句子时，句号才会出现在括号里面。例如：
Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).
Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.)
Please read the analysis (Attachment A).
10. 破折号（Dash）
破折号的作用相当于逗号和圆括号，用于分隔句中需要注释或说明的成分。与逗号或圆括号不同的是，破折号能起到强调的作用，并能创造悬念、增强句子的活力。
① 用于引出主句，对前面一系列引导性成分进行总结概括。例如：
Classrooms, bedrooms, and the library—these three points constitute the life of the students in our college.
② 用于分隔内部带有标点的插入成分，并使之得到强调。例如：
The group sponsored performers—dancers, poets, musicians—from around the world.
③ 用于引出对一个完整句子的补充说明。例如：
Last week my daughter phoned to say that she had bought a new pet—a black spider.
④ 表示犹豫。例如：
“I—I—I have broken the window,” he stammered.
11. 省略号（Ellipsis）
① 用于表明在引语中省略了一些词语。例如：
“The main reason... is its presentday importance as a world language.”
② 用于口语中表示犹豫或停顿。例如：
Its a bird... its a plane...well, its a flying machine.
Well, I am...am what is called... er...a salesman.
12. 斜线号（Slant）
① 用于分隔替换词，其前后无空格。例如：
His mother and / or father will come to see him today.
Please send check / bank order / post order to the Head Office.
② 用于诗歌分行，其前后各空一格。例如：
As Juliet says, it is Romeos name that is her enemy: That which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as seeet.
13. 撇号（Apostrophe）
① 表示所有格
the dogs headthe dogs ears
the womans eyethe womens club
② 表示省略
it is→itsof the clock→oclock
is not→isntcannot→cant
③ 表示数字、符号、字母或词形的复数
five 6s, the 1990s, two WCs
二、毕业论文的细节处理
拼写、连字符、大小写、斜体、缩略词，以及数字的书写方式等通常被称为写作的技术性细节。这些细节问题很琐碎，大家在论文撰写中一定要多加注意。
1. 拼写
单词的正确拼写需要大家花上一定的时间和功夫去记忆。尽可能学习一些拼写规则和例外情况。
另外，前面也提到过，论文所选的英语拼写类型，英式或美式，全文要始终保持一致。
2. 连字符的用法
连字符的使用要遵守约定俗成的规则。
不到万不得已，不要分割单词。如果必须分割，行尾单词分割要遵守以下分割原则：
① 单音节词或很短的单词不分割，如wealth, strength, my, area等。
② 在两个音节之间分割单词，如distinction, needle, number等。
③ 如果慢速发音中两个辅音字母跟随不同的元音字母组成音节，则在两个辅音字母间分割，如factor等。
④ 加后缀时，如果词根以双辅音结尾，则在双辅音后加连字符，如successful等。但如果词根是单辅音，是双写辅音后再加的后缀，则要在双辅音间加连字符，如swimming, planned等。
⑤ 不得将单个字母与单词的其他部分分开。如：about和enough是不可分割移行的。
⑥ 分割单词后，不得违反单词的读音规则。如：过去式ed不构成音节，如果分割移行则无法读出，所以complained中的ed不能移行。同样，compelled要分割成compelled，不是compelled。
⑦ 专有名词和缩略词在读者的心目中是一个整体，不要分隔。如：Washington, wouldnt, UNESCO等词是不拆分移行的。
⑧ 原先已有连字符的单词在连字符处分割，不再拆分其他单词。如：sisterinlaw，不再拆分sister。
⑨ 一页纸的最后一个词不分割移行。
而带有前缀的单词中连字符的用法如下：
① 大部分前缀与单词构成一个整体，没有界限，如disabled。如果前缀有三个以上的字母构成，则在前缀后分割单词，不要在其他音节间分割单词。如：misunderstand，不是misunderstand。
② 有些前缀必须加连字符后才跟词根，这种情况以词典为准，如exhusband, selfconfidence, allAmerican, antiCommunist等。
③ 有时候前缀后面必须加连字符以消除歧义。如：redress（重新穿上衣服），区别于redress（矫正）。
④ 当前缀的最后一个字母与词根的第一个字母相同时，或者当加上前缀后导致三个元音字母连在一起时，用连字符分割，如：antiintellectual, semiintensive等。
⑤ 当一个词根有两个前缀时，词根只需写一次，写在第二个前缀后面，但两个前缀后面都必须有连字符，如pre or posttest, two and fouryear colleges等。
合成词中连字符的用法如下：
① 合成词作修饰词用时，通常加连字符，如fastpaced lecture, longterm commitment等。但不做修饰词时，则不用加连字符。如：The lecture seems fast paced, My commitment is long term。
② 常用的合成词不加连字符，如health insurance policy, junior high school等。
③ 当合成词中第一个成分是以ly结尾的副词、一个比较级或最高级形式的单词，或者一个外来词时，省略连字符，如happily married couple, better fitting dress, least expected results, an ad hoc committee（特别委员会）等。
④ 复合长度单位之间用连字符，如kilowatthours, lightyears等。
用英语单词拼写的数字中连字符的用法：
① 分数：分子和分母间用连字符；但如果分子或分母本身带连字符，则取消连字符。如：threehundredths, onethird, twothirds。但two threehundredths。
② 两位数数字：在21 至99之间的两位数单词之间加连字符，无论这个数字是独立的还是更大数字的一部分，如thirtyfive, two hundred and thirtyfive等。
③ 当数字与单词结合成一体表达一个概念或组成修饰语时，在数字和单词间加连字符，如50minute class, 10kilometer race等。 但是如果修饰语中的单词有所有格，则省略连字符，如5 days vacation, 8 hours pay, 2 weeks work等。
3. 大小写
单词的大写规则通常都是约定俗成的，但有时也比较灵活。最好的方法是参考一本好的词典。英语的大写规则主要有以下几点：
① 句子开头的第一个字母要大写，这也意味着前一句要以句号、问号或感叹号结束。
② 在系列问句中，每一个结构不完整的问句可以大写也可以小写开始。如：
What facial feature would most people change if they could? Their eyes? Their ears? Their mouths?
也可以写成：
What facial feature would most people change if they could? their eyes? their ears? their mouths?
无论用大写还是小写，必须做到前后一致。
③ 冒号后面的结构完整的句子可以大写开始，也可以小写开始，但分号后的独立句都必须以小写开始。如：
I needadvice about what to do: The instructions give contradictory orders.
也可以写成：
I needadvice about what to do: the instructions give contradictory orders.
比较：
I needadvice about what to do; the instructions give contradictory orders.
④ 专有名词是具体人物、地点或事物的名称，第一个字母需要大写，如John F. Kennedy, the U.S.A., Monday, May, Chinese等。
⑤ 一些称呼语或头衔用在专有名词前要大写，但用在专有名词后不大写。试比较Governor Grover Cleveland of New York以及Grover Cleveland, governor of the state of New York。
⑥ 专有名词的首字母缩略词（acronym）要大写，如WTO, USA等。
⑦ 作为专有名词一部分的缩略词(abbreviation)要大写，如T. S. Eliot, Sammy Davis, Jr.等。
⑧ 各种文章、艺术作品的标题要大写，冠词和少于5个字母的介词、连词不大写（位于标题开头时例外），标题中冒号和分号之后的第一个字母要大写。例如：
A Tale of Two Cities（小说名）
Beating the Market: How to Get Rich on Stocks（报刊文章名）
The Last Supper（画名）
Never Say Die（歌曲专辑名）
⑨ 引号之内的对话第一个词要大写。如：
“To me?” he asked.
4. 数字
数字的使用方式因不同的作者和编辑而有所差异，因此难以有固定的规则。有些报章杂志通常用阿拉伯数字表示数值，但在书的正文中数字的使用并不多见。无论何种出版物，脚注、参考书目、科技报告和图表必须使用阿拉伯数字。标准的文章中很少使用数字。数字的使用通常遵守下面一些规则：
① 一般来说，只需一两个单词就可以拼写出来的数字要用文字形式，需要三个或更多单词才能拼写出来的数字要使用阿拉伯数字形式：
six boxes但是： 181 boxes
twentyfour dollars但是：$23.88
forty thousand children但是： 39, 658 children
② 一个句子的开头不用阿拉伯数字。如果必须把数字用在句首，则用文字形式表达。如：
Three hundred seventyfive dollars is a big sum for him.
Nineteen sixtysix saw the happening of a great movement.
③ 在提供大量数据信息的文章中，使用阿拉伯数字形式。如：
Between October and early December of 2000, responses were received from an even 600 students. Of the respondents 59% were male, 41% were female, 80.8% were in the 18to 21 yearold age range, and 14.1% were in the 22 to 30 yearold age range. Most of the students (89%) called themselves native speakers of English; 15% claimed to be bilingual; 64.9% were in the first year of FL instruction; and 35.1% were in secondyear courses. The student respondents came from 21 different states and three Canadian provinces.
④ 日期、与A.M.及P.M.连用的时间通常用阿拉伯数字形式：
October 9, 20029 October 1893
the 1960s6 A. M.
⑤ 街道、公路、大楼、门牌号码等几乎总是以阿拉伯数字形式出现：
1 Park Avenue237 North 8th Street
Apartment 6JState Highway 2
5. 缩略词
① 在正式文体中少用缩略词。地址和地理名称、月份、星期的名称和人名在正文中必须用全称，不得用缩略式。例如：
The Catskill Mountains（不用Mts.）of New York（不用N. Y.） is near the Hudson River.
In September（不用Sept.） and October（不用Oct.）Charles visits the botanical gardens every Sunday.
② 避免使用and的缩略词&，除非这是正式名称的一部分；避免使用sth.，sb.等缩略式；避免使用etc.， 尽量列举出所有要说的内容，如果必须省略，要用and so on, and so forth, for example, such as 等表达方式。例如：
This garden is good for planting lettuce, cabbages, spinach, radishes, onions, and other coolweather vegetables.
This garden is good for planting coolweather vegetables—cabbages and spinach, for example.
This garden is good for planting coolweather vegetables such as lettuce and cabbages.
③ 除在正式名称或参考书目中，page, chapter, volume, edition等名词以及课程名称不能用缩略词。如：
In Chapter 16, several pages present new developments in open heart surgery.
④ 同人名连用的称呼语，包括Mr., Mrs., Dr., St., the Rev. （Reverend尊敬的），the Hon.（ Honorary）， Sen. （Senator），Rep. （Representative）使用缩略词。
⑤ 通常以首字母缩写形式称呼的机构、组织等名称可以使用缩写形式，如CIA, US government等。
⑥ 和时间、日期、数字连用的单词使用缩略形式，如6 P. M.,498 B. C.等。
⑦ 在正文中，通常要把大部分拉丁语缩略词改写成完整的英语单词形式。例如：e.g.用for example替代，vs.用versus替代。
6. 斜体字
书籍、杂志、报纸、戏剧、电影、艺术品、长诗、宣传册、音乐作品等出版物名称使用斜体字（书写体中，用下划线代替）。例如：
Joan Didion, a former editor of Vogue and The National Review, received glowing reviews in The New York Times for her novel A Book of Common Prayer.
另外，尚未被英语同化的外来词使用斜体或下划线表示。例如：
These apples weigh as much as 15 jin, and cost me 50 yuan.
附录
常用缩写词一览表
abbreviationmeaning
AD/A.D., anno Domini(Latin)in the year of the Lord
anon.anonymous, anonymously
app.appendix
art.article (plural, arts)
b.born
BC / B.C.before Christ
bk.book (plural, bks.)
c.copyright
ca., circa(Latin)about, approximately
cf., confer(Latin)compare (Note that confer is the Latin word for “compare”)
ch.chapter (in legal references only)
chap.chapter (plural, chaps)
（续表）
col.column (plural, cols)
comp.compiler (plural, comps.); compiled by
dept.department (plural, depts)
d.died
div.division (divs.)
e.g., exempli gratiafor example
ed.edition; edited by; editor(plural, eds.)
enl.enlarged
esp.especially
et al., et aliiand others
et seq., et sequensand the following
etc., et ceteraand so forth
f.and the following page (plural, ff.)
fig.figure (plural, figs)
fl., floruitflourished (for use when birth and death dates are not known)
ibid, ididemin the same place
i.e., id estthat is
id., idemthe same (used to refer to persons, except in law citations; not to be confused with ibid.)
intro. introd.introduction
infrabelow
Jr.junior (younger)
l. (el)line (plural, ll.)(Not recommended because the abbreviation in the singular might be mistaken for “one” and the plural for “eleven”.)
loc. cit, loco citato (Latin)in the place / passage cited
ms.manuscript (plural, mss.)
n.note, footnote (plural, nn.)
（续表）
n.d.no date
n.p.no place; no publisher
no.number (plural, nos.)
n.s.new series
o.s.old series
op. cit., opera citato (Latin)in the work cited
p.page (plural, pp.; these abbreviations always precede the numbers; when “p.” follows a number, it can stand for “pence”.)
par.paragraph
passim(Latin)here and there
pseud.pseudonym
pt.part (plural, pts.)
qtd.quoted
q.v., quod videwhich see (for use with crossreferences)
rev.revised, revision, revised by; review, reviewed by
rpt.reprint, reprinted
sc.scene
sec.section (plural, secs.)
sess.session
[sic](Latin)so, thus
st.stanza (plural, sts.)
supp.supplement (plural, supps)
supraabove
s.v.under the word
tr.,trans.translator; translated by
usu.usual, usually
v.verse (plural, vv.)
viz., videlicet(Latin)namely, that is to say
vol.volume (plural, vols.)
vs., versusagainst (“v.”is used in law references)
第十一章毕业论文的后期准备
第十一章毕业论文的后期准备
论文写成后，大家需要从总体上进行全方位、多层次的复审、检查和修改，以保证全文论点明确，结构严谨，行文流畅，所以论文的修改是论文写作过程中必不可少的一个环节。修改论文是一项艰巨的工作，因为修改过程需要更加严谨的态度和审视能力，需要研究者超越自我，以追求更高的境界和更好的效果。
一、修改论文
1. 修改的要求
论文修改可以从宏观和微观两个方面展开。宏观修改主要针对内容和结构，微观修改主要针对语言和格式。
宏观修改
论文内容的修改主要涉及三个方面：检查论文的中心论点和各个分论点；检查论证所用材料；检查论文的论证方法。
论文的中心论点是论文的灵魂。修改论文时，首先要注意中心论点是否明确，另外要看各个分论点对中心论点的论述是否合理恰当。如果分论点是从各个侧面来说明中心论点的，就要检查分论点涉及的内容是否全面，是否紧扣主题；如果分论点是逐层深入地来阐述中心论点，就要检查各个分论点是否按照由浅入深、由表及里的逻辑顺序逐层剖析。这种论述方式最忌讳的是论述不深入，修改时要尤为注意。其次还要对自己提出的论点多问几个为什么，是否能站住脚，有没有可能被别人加以驳斥。自己除了搜集论证资料外，也需反复审视论点，采用反面例子加以质询，以确保论点的客观准确和说服力。
论据作为论点强有力的支撑，同样要经得起反复推敲。修改时作者需对材料进一步的筛选、过滤。如果论据显得单薄无力，就要补充新的材料；如果论据在论证论点时显得牵强，要毫不犹豫地删掉，及时更换新的材料；如果论据显得罗嗦、累赘，就要精简。总之，要掌握一个原则：论据要始终围绕论点，不偏不倚，准确适度，把握质和量。
撰写论文时所用的论证方法在修改过程中也要重新审视。对于不同的论题，不同的作者会选用不同的论证方法。无论哪种论证方法一定要做到合乎逻辑，有理有据，水到渠成。要避免由于论证不足而产生的论点、论据“两张皮”现象。
论文结构指的是论文的整体框架或组成部分。修改毕业论文时，要注意论文结构是否和谐，条理是否清晰，层次是否分明，开篇、中间和结尾是否各司其职，分工明确又和谐统一。各章节以及各段落之间过渡是否自然、逻辑性是否强，是否有重复或自相矛盾之处。上述这些都是修改论文结构时要注意的问题。
微观修改
微观修改主要针对论文语言和格式的修改。论文的语言修改主要关注论文的选词、语气和语调、时态和语态、句法和篇章等方面。论文的格式修改则需注意行文中的字母大小写、斜体、缩写、标点符号、数字或序列号等方面的问题；尤其要注意检查引文和注释的格式和正确性。对引文的出处、参考文献的作者、出版地、出版社、出版时间都要进一步核对，确保不出差错。这里需要提及的一点是，如果论文中的直接引文过多，应考虑在修改过程中将其化为自己的语言，否则难逃抄袭之嫌。
总之，在论文定稿之前，可着重检查下列各条，然后针对存在的问题进行认真的修改工作。
① 题目是否恰当？是否存在题目与论文内容不吻合，或不能统领全篇内容的现象？
② 论文的框架结构是否有不当之处和不足之处？
③ 开头部分是否写得引人入胜？
④ “引言”中的中心论题是否有值得修改的地方？切入点是否鲜明恰当？
⑤ 论点是否正确、鲜明？定义是否科学？
⑥ 论据是否全面、充分、合理、具有说服力？
⑦ 层次是否分明？安排是否有序？
⑧ 详略是否得当？重点是否突出？
⑨ 句与句之间、段与段之间是否连贯与符合逻辑？
⑩ 句子是否完整？表意是否清楚？句式是否有变化？是否注意了强调手段？
文章的整个语气是否恰当？
用词和句式是否符合正式文体的习惯？
是否存在明显的语法错误？
直接引语和间接引语是否都标明了出处？引语内容是否有误？
“结论”是否与“引言”照应？总结或重述主要论点时，是否与前文的句式和用词有所变化？
注释和参考文献的书写格式是否规范？
修改时可以把上述各点分配在论文写作的不同阶段进行。比如:在修改第一稿时可着重考虑论文的宏观修改，包括论文的中心论题是否明确、论点是否科学合理、论据是否全面充分、内容安排是否详略得当、论文的框架结构是否完善合理、引语的内容是否正确、形式是否规范等。修改第二稿时可考虑解决包括论文文体、语句连贯、句式变化、强调手段等方面的润饰性问题。修改第三稿时，可以着重解决语法错误、词的拼写规范，以及注释和参考文献方面的问题。这样，明确不同阶段的修改目的，可以收到事半功倍的效果。
2. 修改的方法
修改论文的方法很多，主要可以归纳为以下几种：
① 立足中心，着眼全局
论文要经过好几遍修改才能趋于完善，但是最初对论文的修改一定要立足中心，着眼全局。论点是否明确，前后是否矛盾；论据是否确切；全篇布局是否合理，段落之间的衔接、过渡是否自然；论文是否是一个无懈可击的整体，等等。这些问题一定要在最初的修改过程中完成，只有这样才能为下一步更为精细的修改打好基础。
② 边写边改，趁热打铁
有人称这种方法为“热处理”。“热处理”适合对局部论文的修改。在写成一部分论文后，在思路还没有中断的情况下，马上从头至尾再看一遍刚写的段落，是否把要说的内容全包括进去，对论点的阐述是否明确，论据是否充分有力，论证是否恰当。这种修改方法的好处是可以把那些稍纵即逝的灵感发挥得淋漓尽致，使论文新颖别致。
③ 冷静处理，稍安勿躁
这种方法也被称为“冷处理”。“冷处理”适合对论文的总体修改。论文写完后，可以先放一放，搁置一段时间后再拿出来修改。这样，经过一段时间的调整，从论文中走出来，让自己的思路摆脱原来的思维模式，远距离地看一看，便于从总体上把握论文的整体框架。
④ 求助良师益友
论文在自己修改了几遍后，应该拿出给同专业的同学或朋友看一看。有时由于自己知识层次、认识水平和思考角度的限制，很难发现自己论文的某些毛病，让别人看一看，可能会从另一个角度发现论文的不足和缺陷，这样再改一遍，会有意想不到的效果。当然，改动之后，最好自己再大声朗读一遍，确保万无一失。做完这几步，再拿给指导教师评阅。根据导师的建议和意见，作者再进一步修改。这样层层过滤，层层把关，论文会最大限度地体现作者的整体水平，日趋完美。
⑤ 借助电脑，事半功倍
电脑的普及大大提高了我们的学习和工作效率。对于论文的修改，电脑的作用尤为突出。Word文档中的单词纠错、查找和替换，段落的复制和粘贴，Thesaurus找寻近义词和反义词等功能极大地方便了论文的修改润色。作为即将毕业的大学生，掌握这些基本技巧也是为将来的工作及研究打下必备基础。但与此同时，我们也不能完全依赖电脑。电脑毕竟不同于人脑，它不能进行更为深入的思考，所以有些问题单纯地全盘依靠电脑也是不可行的。比如：特定语境下的选词，如果不假思索，一味盲信自动纠错功能，就无法做到准确、贴切；再如对文章整体结构的把握，电脑固然可以帮助我们有效地修改某一段落或语句，但由此而涉及的过渡问题和前后语序问题，电脑则无能为力。
3. 一篇优秀毕业论文应具备的条件
一般来说，一篇优秀的论文应具备以下10个条件：
① 全面而详尽的资料
② 明确而有分量的论题
③ 清晰的条理和组织
④ 遵循作文的基本原理
⑤ 利用直接引文、换词表达或概要来支持论点
⑥ 以夹注、尾注或脚注的形式注明出处
⑦ 罗列参考文献
⑧ 细致周密地注明所有参考文献
⑨ 严格遵循论文写作的格式
⑩ 打印精良
二、完成致谢
论文致谢是对那些在研究者完成论文的过程中提供过帮助的人公开表示谢意的一种形式。致谢对象主要是你的论文指导教师和给予你直接帮助的其他老师和同学。有时，论文作者还可以趁此机会，向曾经支持或帮助过自己的家人或朋友致谢，这也是合宜的。如果你曾经邀请学生或其他人参与你的调查研究活动，那么也应当感谢那些曾经为此付出时间和辛劳的人。致谢的篇幅一般较短，不能超过一页。
撰写致谢应符合学术风格，力求语言优雅、简明扼要，语气要郑重，态度要诚恳，致谢的理由要写得具体、明了，还要注意句型的变化。下面给大家提供一些常用的致谢句型：
I wish to acknowledge...for...
Acknowledgements are made to...for...
I wish to express my sincere thanks to...for...
I am greatly indebted to...for...
I am grateful to...for...
I (also) owe much gratitude to...
I am (also) appreciative to...
Thanks are due to...for...
My (equal) thanks go to...(who has helped me...)
Last but not the least, I thank...for...
I have also benefited from...
以下是一些“致谢”的例子，它们在内容安排和句式的选择与变化方面都有一定的参考价值。
范例1
This thesis has been in gestation for several months. During this period of time I have benefited a great deal of support and help from my teachers, classmates, and parents.
First of all, I am grateful to my tutor Professor***for his earnest and patient guidance, without which the thesis would not be possible.
I am also greatly indebted to Professor***and Professor***, who gave me valuable ideas and suggestions when I began to write the draft.
My heartfelt thanks go to other teachers in the Foreign Language Department, who either gave me lectures or were generous to offer me valuable reference materials.
Much appreciation is due to my dear classmates such as***, ***, and***, who have helped me in one way or another during my hard work.
Last but not least, I wish to take the opportunity to thank my parents. Their understanding and encouragement have been crucial to the timely completion of this thesis.
范例2
I am greatly indebted to Professor***, my tutor, for his patient guidance and instructive correction of my paper. His loyalty to teaching and punctilious work style have profoundly impressed me.
I am also appreciative to many other teachers such as Professor*** and Professor***, each in one way or another having provided me with incentives and direction for my study.
I am thankful for the help and support from my classmates and friends***, ***, ***, and others. The friendship with them has made the past four years the most memorable period of student career.
Finally, I owe a debt of gratitude, which is beyond the power of words, to Mr. &Mrs. Fancher, an American couple who taught me “Basic Writing” and “Fast Reading” two years ago. They posted me from California several newlypublished books, which proved to be very useful in my preparing for the thesiswriting.
范例3
This paper has finally come into being to meet critical eyes through two months of hard work.
From the very beginning when I chose the topic till the completion of the paper, I have benefited from many people whose help I must acknowledge.
I am particularly grateful to my tutor, Professor***, for his valuable suggestions and commentary ideas, and for his patience in correcting the draft. Without his guidance and help, timely completion of this paper would not be possible.
Thanks are also due to my classmates and friends for their constant encouragement and their ways of assistance in the course of writings.
Yet I have to acknowledge that I am independently responsible for the paper and I am the person to blame for any pitfalls, flaws and neglects in it.
（资料来源：张霖欣主编，英语专业毕业（学术）论文写作教程，2013）
三、付印文稿
论文打印纸张为A4纸，即210mm×297mm标准大小的白纸缮印，以便于阅读、复印和拍摄缩微制品。打印页边距上2.5cm，下2.5cm，左3.0cm，右2.5cm； 装订线0.5cm。
打印顺序为题名页，包括中文封面页和英文封面页，原创性声明页，版权使用授予声明页，论文摘要页，目录页，论文正文，参考文献，致谢页。调查（实验）类研究论文（报告）会有附录，比如调查问卷，放置于论文之后，参考文献之前。
打印时，中文封面、英文封面、目录页、参考文献、致谢页需单页打印。原创性声明和版权使用授予声明双面打印，中英文摘要双面打印，论文、附录内容双面打印。论文正文奇数页页眉为和偶数页页眉设置为“××大学本科毕业论文”和论文题目。页码位于页脚底部中间，从正文开始标注页码。
四、终稿答辩
毕业论文答辩（oral defense）是答辩委员会成员（简称答辩老师）和撰写论文的学员面对面的，由答辩老师就论文提出相关问题，让学生当面作出回答。答辩时有“问”有“答”，还可以有“辩”。
毕业论文答辩是审查毕业论文的一种补充形式。一般来说，本科以上（含本科）毕业生都要参加答辩。其毕业论文的成绩由文章成绩和答辩成绩组成，最后由评审小组、评审委员会鉴别评定。
论文答辩小组一般由三至五名教师、有关专家组成，对论文中论述不清楚、不详细、不完备、不恰当之处，答辩老师会在答辩会上提出来。一般来说，答辩老师所提出的问题，仅涉及该文章的学术范围或文章所阐述问题，而不是对整个学科知识的全面考查。毕业论文答辩的主要目的在于审查文章的真伪、审查论文作者知识掌握的深度，以及审查文章是否符合体裁格式。学生通过答辩，让答辩老师进一步了解文章立论的依据及其自己处理课题的实际能力。
因此，毕业论文答辩是高等院校审查毕业论文质量、考察毕业生理论知识水平、运用知识能力的一项重要工作，同时也是检验教学效果的一种有效方式。论文答辩关系到毕业论文成绩的优劣，还决定能否授予该毕业生学位。因此，每位毕业生都要积极认真地做好答辩的准备工作。
答辩的语言根据论文语言而定。若是用英文写的则用英文答辩，若是用中文写的则用中文答辩；或按主辩老师的要求进行准备。无论要求用何种语言进行答辩，其基本原则与要求相同，即答辩要简明扼要，力求抓住中心和要点。
1. 毕业论文答辩的准备
① 答辩的心理准备
论文答辩要求论文作者就自己的论文内容现场回答答辩委员会提出的问题。这种形式要求学生既要对自己的论文有全面深刻的了解，具备一定的分析、解决学术问题的能力，还要求学生有较强的应变能力。就英语专业的学生而言，答辩还是考查论文作者英语口语表达能力的一个途径。基于以上几点，答辩者应从心理上做好充分的准备，防止两种极端偏激的思想。
一种是对答辩产生害怕畏惧心理，唯恐自己回答不出答辩老师的问题，或担心自己根本理解不了老师所提的问题。其实，答辩委员会的老师只是对与论文有关的问题进行提问，不会为难答辩者。既然毕业论文是自己工作好几个月甚至一年的心血，内容熟悉，观点清楚，根本无需给自己增加过多的压力。重要的是，答辩者一定要自信。信心就像能力催化剂，会将人的一切潜能都调动起来，将人体各部分的功能推动到最佳状态。
另一种是对答辩重视不够，思想上麻痹大意，认为写完论文就万事大吉，答辩不过是走形式而已。在这种心态的影响下，是根本做不好答辩的，导致有些同学进入复答辩，有时甚至会影响学位的获得。其实，答辩是答辩者和答辩老师之间进行的一次学术交流，学生应该把答辩看作是对自己多年学习的一次全面综合的检验，是对自己论文的一次全方位透视，只有经过答辩这一环节，答辩者的水平才能在这种直观互动的环境下得到进一步的提高。
② 答辩的内容准备
学生在做答辩前，可以针对下面几个方面着手认真准备：
明白为什么要选择这个课题，研究该课题有什么理论价值或现实意义？
了解该课题的研究历史和现状，即前人做过哪些方面的研究？取得了哪些成果？还有哪些问题没有解决？自己有什么新的看法？论文提出并解决了哪些问题？
熟悉自己论文的基本观点和立论的基本依据。
学术界对本论文题目有关的某些问题的具体争论是什么？自己的倾向性观点是什么？
毕业论文中重要引文有哪些？它们的具体出处在哪里？
了解论文中本应涉及或解决但因力不从心而未接触的问题；因认为与本文中心关系不大而未写入的新见解。
定稿交出后，自己重新审查新发现的需要改进之处。
答辩分为自我陈述和回答问题两个环节。在答辩老师提问前，答辩者要对自己的论文进行5~10分钟的简短介绍。介绍的主要内容类似论文的引言部分，包括选题的动机、论文的论点、论证的要点与方法、结论等。自述报告虽然简短，却能说明整个论文的结构、内容和论点，陈述时要做到语言简洁，思维清晰，给答辩老师留下一个好的印象。还有一点要特别注意，既然是自述报告，就需要在答辩前将论文“消化”为自己的思想。答辩者要做到胸有成竹，即使不看文本，也可将大体框架和重点内容很自然地“讲述”出来。只有如此，才能避免由死记硬背带来的拘谨和僵硬感。最好的效果是不读、不背，只是口头阐述，娓娓道来。
与论文文本不同，自我陈述时需要选择一些简单的词汇，避免那些深奥难懂的专业词汇；另外，需要在适当的时候加入过渡词，让自己的论述层次分明、逻辑性强；需要发音清楚，语调热情，声音抑扬顿挫，显示自己对这个课题和这项研究有浓厚的兴趣；陈述结束时，需要强调自己的结论。
自我陈述结束后，答辩者就需要回答答辩老师的问题了。答辩老师的提问目的是考查论文作者对论题和与论题相关的研究了解多少，做了多少研究，以及从中收获多少，有时甚至就是考查答辩者提供的论文是否是自己独立完成的。有时，考查也可能包括论文作者对论文涉及的相关知识的掌握情况，甚至可能包括一些比较挑剔的问题。因此，论文作者在答辩之前必须进行细致、充分的准备，尤其是一定要熟悉自己的论文，以便在答辩过程中能有令人满意的表现。在答辩老师提问时，要认真倾听，必要时可以做些笔记；应答要反应迅速，语言表达应简明扼要，切忌含糊其辞。
③ 答辩的细节准备
答辩前要对答辩场所有所了解，可以提前去看一下，以免答辩时因地点不熟产生紧张心理。
答辩时的穿着要大方得体，不要奇装异服，男生不要穿得太随便，女生要避免浓妆艳抹。
答辩时要注意调整自己的心态，深呼吸，避免过于紧张，要做到不亢不卑，沉着自信。
答辩时要带上底稿及答辩提纲。在答辩前再浏览一下答辩提纲，做到心中有数。
答辩时要带上纸和笔，以便就答辩老师的提问进行记录，更好地进行答辩。
答辩的开头、结尾注意礼貌问题。对答辩老师的提问、意见和听众的注意表示感谢。
答辩时如听不清或听不懂答辩老师的提问，不要含糊做答，可礼貌地请老师再说一遍，然后再回答。
答辩时答辩老师会对某个论点或问题提出异议，此时，不要过于紧张，马上否定自己，也不要过于固执，咄咄逼人。应该采取的态度是有理有据地阐述自己的观点，能够自圆其说，还要让答辩老师信服。
答辩时对那些较复杂、自己一时回答不清的问题，可请求老师给出短暂的思考时间，然后再有条不紊，逐步深入地作答。
2. 答辩的技巧问题
答辩时要注意语音语调，尽量做到准确无误，平稳一致；语速要适中，过快过慢都不可取，一般以每分钟100~120个词为宜；音量也要掌握好，不可过高或过低；此外，重读、停顿和一些肢体语言都要予以考虑，以避免陈述的单调性。这些都需要答辩者从听众的面部表情得到反馈，及时予以调整。
答辩时所用语言要简洁明了，直奔主题。不要用过于生涩难懂的语言，以显示自己的学问。一些不适合口头表述的专业术语在不被误解的情况下可以用代词或缩写代替。也不要用过于随便的语言，和答辩这种庄重的场合格格不入；如果可能，可以适当使用一些幽默的话语，调节紧张气氛，但不要离题万里，毫不相干。
学会使用模糊语言。不同于论文写作的书面语言要字字推敲，准确无误，答辩过程中答辩者可以适时使用模糊语言，如something like, a sort of, its a kind of thing to, nearly, over, about等，以避免绝对化和主观化。一些精确的数字统计一时难以记起，是情理之中的事，只要口头表达与文字部分出入不大，是完全允许的。
答辩过程中出现一些口误现象实属正常，关键是采取一些补救措施将之化解，如下面几个例子：
I am afraid that is cutting a bit of fine—I was saying, theres not enough time left for preparing for the test. (for a moderate tone)
Id like to talk this over with you later—well, to be more exact, 7:30 tomorrow evening. (for more specific time)
What I have seen is very impressive. Of course, the experimental techniques cannot be called advanced yet—I mean, in regard to the automation and its management. (for minimization of negation)
In the experiment I discovered a new way, or rather, I used a new method to observe the movement. (for honest statement)
在回答答辩老师提问时对不同问题要采取不同的回答技巧。如果是没有听清楚问题，可以直接要求重复：Pardon?/Sorry, I didnt catch what youve said. Would you mind repeating your question?/What was the last sentence, please? 如果是只听懂大意，还想进一步使问题明确化，可以委婉地提出：Sorry, Im not quite sure of your question, could I understand your question like this.../To the best of my knowledge, you were asking me about..., am I right?/It seems to me that what I have been asked perhaps means..., was that your question? 如果已经理解问题，但对自己的答案不甚肯定，在回答时要留有余地：I wonder if I could answer your question like this.../Personally, I suppose its very likely to.../Perhaps I could give you more examples concerning this. 如果对一些问题无从下手回答，要么采取直接回避的方法：Sorry, I am afraid I know very little about it. I am all ears to your suggestions; 要么采取迂回战术，反复强调已陈述过的内容，以此获得时间重新整理思路；或者采用模糊词语，对一些难以精确表达的概念“一带而过”；如果所提问题有些纰漏，或和论文意见不同，可以委婉说明理由：I should have thought your misunderstood some of what I said in my talk just now./I agree with much of what you said, but for the last point, I would say it would be better if you could look at the problem from another side./I think you have raised a very good question. But, I have to point out that.../Personally speaking, I think what you have said also sounds reasonable. However...
附录
附录1××大学20XX届毕业论文答辩小组评分表
系（部）：专业：班级：
姓名学号指导教师
论文题目
评分
标准自述总结
（30分）思路清晰，语言表达准确，概念清楚，论点正确，分析归纳合理。
创新
（10分）有创新意识和独特见解，工作有实用价值。
答辩
（50分）能够正确回答所提出的问题，基本概念清楚，有理论根据。
资料
（10分）资料齐全，符合学校毕业设计（论文）规范化要求。
自述总结创新答辩资料总分签名
答辩组
成员1
答辩组
成员2
答辩组
成员3
答辩组
成员4
答辩组
成员5
答辩小组综合评定成绩：组长签名：
注：本表中答辩小组综合评定成绩应取各成员成绩的平均值。
附录2学生论文样例
《暮色》中的女性哥特主义分析
An Analysis of Twilight from the
Perspective of Female Gothic
1. Introduction
Twilight is famous as a romantic story among young adults not only in America but also in the world. Published in 2005, it was honored with “the Best Childrens Book in 2005” and “the Best Books of 2005” by Publishers Weekly and School Library Journal respectively. And its author—Stephenie Morgan Meyer became the bestselling author after J.K.Rowling.
Stephenie Morgan Meyer is an American writer and her works are popular among young people, especially her vampire romance series The Twilight Saga. Resort to this novel, Meyer was the bestselling American writer in 2008 and 2009, with 29 million copies in 2008 and 26.5 million in 2009. In addition, Meyer was bit No. 49 on Time magazines list of the “100” Most Influential People in 2008, and was embodied in the Forbs Celebrity 100 list of the most powerful celebrities in 2009. The Guardian has praised her as an imaginative storyteller, a versatile writer and a newly powerful figure in the publishing market. Wayne Janes of Toronto Sun agreed, saying, “Meyers success points up another trend—the virtual domination of the best seller lists the last few years by what would normally be classified as young adult fiction.”(Smith, 2009)
She conquered No. 82 on Vanity Fairs list of the “Top 100 Information Age Powers” of 2009. Meyer was featured in an issue of the biographical comic Female Force, a Bluewater Productions title which celebrates influential women in society and pop culture. The comic has previously published biographies of women such as Oprah Winfrey and Princess Diana. In 2011 CEO World Magazine ranked her among its Top Accomplished Women Entertainers.
Novelist Orson Scott Card said, “Stephenie Meyer writes with luminous clarity, never standing between the reader and the dream they share. She is the real thing.”(Card, 2009) Scott described Meyer as an “amazing phenomenon”. In an interview with Newsweek, author Jodi Picoult said, “Stephenie Meyer has gotten people hooked on books, and thats good for all of us.”(Yabroff, 2009) Meyer was ranked No.5 on Forbes list of “Hollywoods Top—Earning Women”, the only author on the list, and it was noted that the “Twilight series of young—adult vampire books have taken the publishing and film worlds by storm”.(Pomerantz, 2009)
As the second child of her six siblings, Meyer was born in Hartford, Connecticut and raised in Phoenix. She attended Chaparral High School in Scottsdale, Arizona, where her former English teacher remembered her as “bright but not overly so”. (Caroline, 2014) And later Meyer gained her BA in English in 1997 in Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah.
Meyer had no experienceto write story before Twilight. She had considered going to law school because she felt she had no chance of becoming a writer; but the birth of her oldest son changed her. She later noted, “Once I had Gabe, I just wanted to be his mom.” (Mills, 2008) Meyers only social position was a receptionist of a property company before becoming an author.
Twilight is the first book of four vampirethemed fantasy romance novels of The Twilight Saga by American author Stephenie Meyer. It mainly describes the laterteenyear girl named Isabella Swan, falls in love with a 104yearold vampire Edward Cullen.
Isabella Swan comes to live with her father Charlie in rainy Forks from sunny Phoenix, Arizona because of her mothers second marriage and honey moon traveling with her new husband. She attracts much attention and many boys admiration at her new school, but she is dismayed for her deskmate in Biology class, named Edward Cullen. He seems to be sick to sit beside Bella, because he sits the edge of table, as far from Bella as possible, and he have not went to school for few days after Biology class. That makes Bella irritating and annoying. As time goes by, things seem to be turned the tables. Edward saves Bellas life from Tylors van with just one hand in school parking lot. Besides gratitude, she feels more curiosities to Edward. By accident, she learns about that Edward and his families are vampires that drink animal blood. She is told legends of the local Quilyeute people by a friend Jacob Black who she met during a camp out. Disturbing by recurring nightmares, Bella researches everything about vampires. To her dismay, she realizes that Edward hadnt come to school on the blood typing day because he is a vampire; she compares the characteristics of the vampires in the myths to the Cullens, and finds many similarities. Convinced hes a vampire, she feels some bewilderment. But a couple of days later, Bella is saved by Edward again in Port Angeles when she is almost attacked. Driving a silver Volvo, Edward takes Bella to dinner and drives her home then. As they drive, she tells him of the stories that she heard about vampires. Edward says he tried to stay away, but he finds her scent too desirable to control. As time goes by, Edward and Bella fall in love with each other.
Their relationship isthreatened when a nomad vampire arrives in Forks. A tracker vampire named James is interested in the relationship between Cullens and Bella, wants to hunt Bella for sport. The Cullen family separates Bella and Edward, and hides Bella in a hotel in phoenix. James calls and claims to be holding her mother, aiming to attack Bella when she arrives. Fortunately, Edward and his families rescue her and destroy James before he kills her. But she is dying. In order to prevent Bella from becoming a vampire Edward injects his vampire venom into her body and she is treated at a hospital. After they return to Forks, they go to the school ball together. Bella tells him that she wants to become a vampire, but Edward wont help. He continues to refuse as he hates being immortal and does not want Bella to suffer the same fate.
Meyer said Bellas story came from one dream. She dreamt a human girl fell in love with a vampire who was desire for her blood. Inspired by her dream, Meyer wrote the draft of Twilight. She claimed that she did not want to publish it at the beginning just for her own enjoyment. But her sister insisted that she should send it to literary agencies. She sent 15 letters to literary agencies, however, 5 of them lost response, 9 brought rejections, until the last one got a positive response from Jodi Reamer of Writers House. Since then, the book has swept across the world. Statistically, Twilight was published in 2005 with 75,000 copies, sold to over 26 countries. Twilight was honored with “the Best Childrens Book in 2005” and “the Best Books of 2005” by Publishers Weekly and School Library Journal respectively.
2. The Introduction of Female Gothic
Female Gothic is combination of Feminism and Gothicism, but what the distinction is that compared with traditional Gothic fiction Female Gothic pays more attention to reality instead of supernatural or terror. It is not saying that Female Gothic abandons conventional Gothic elements but it adds some new factors in this theory, such as romantic description, supernatural, brighter background and happy ending.
2.1The History of Female Gothic
Female gothic became one literature genre thanks to definition from Ellen Moers in the book Literary Women in 1977. She wrote, “Female gothic is easily defined: the work than women writers have done in the literary mode that, since the eighteenth century, we have called the Gothic”. (Moers, 1976: 90) A definition of “the Gothic” was, she admitted, “except that it has to do with fear”. According to Mores, female gothic heroines were affected extremely by their childhood experiences, which decided on not only their behavior in domestic family and inner mind but on their increasing dissatisfactions with patriarchal society and womens position in the society. However, by the 1990s, the term was increasingly being qualified because of poststructuralisms destabilizing of the categories of gender. Later, there has been ongoing argument on whether the Female Gothic was deemed as a literary genre. Today, the terms have been “Womens Gothic”, “Feminine Gothic”, “Lesbian Gothic”, even “Gothic Feminism”, but they always remain the same implication. Mores has set an essential foundation.
Robert Miles had written in Womens Writing in 1994, “the term Female Gothic had hardened into one literary genre”(Miles, 1994: 1), the early feminist criticism had reached an impasse. He supposed some critical essayists might study a wrong direction that they demonstrated Female Gothic using psychoanalysis, even “Male Gothic”. In Miles words, “challenging...the concept of gender itself” (Miles, 1994: 134), offered a stateoftheart snapshot which indicated some of the most important directions in which comments to the Female Gothic would experience in recent decades. His comments on A Sicilian Romance (1790) analyzed lucidly that Female Gothic heroine in fight against a villainous father and in search of an absent mother. (Miles, Radcliffe, 1995) Studies that explore differences between “Female Gothic” and “Male Gothic” were regarded this kind of plot as emblematic style of female writers, while male writers tended to describe masculine rebellion such as transgression of social taboos in The Monk (1796), wrote by Matthew Lewis. However, the simple distinction toward Female Gothic had been broke down by Alison Milbanks Daughters of the House: Modes of the Gothic in Victorian Fiction (1992) which analyzes male writers appropriation of Female Gothic in detail. Anne Williams was another contributor. She argued in her Art of Darkness: A Poetics of Gothic (1995) that there were some differences between “male” and “female” gothic, especially in narrative technique, plot, assumptions about the supernatural, and the use of horror. In order to retrospect to the roots of Female Gothic, she had investigated the Greek mythology by Freudian psychoanalysis and found that Female Gothic narrative is typified by female point of view: happy ending, and an attachment to terror, such as the myth of Psyche and Eros was opposed to the Oedipal myth which is supported to the male version.
Diane Long Hoevelersuggested in Gothic Feminism: The Professionalisation of Gender from Charlotte Smith to the Bronts (1998) that the heroines of gothic novels disguised as innocent victims of demoralized and patriarchal society on the one hand, but using passiveaggressive and masochistic strategies to break up that system on the other hand. Hoeveler named this female power root from pretended weakness as “gothic feminism”. (Hoeveler, 1998) Until post—1990, Suzanne Becker in Gothic Forms of Feminine Fiction (1999), her research to some English and Canadian women writers, chose to use the term “Feminine Gothic” to signal her focus on the gender of the speaking subject in the text rather than the gender of the author. Moreover, Modernist and interwar women writers such as Daphne du Maurier had used Gothic modes. And May Sinclair and Stella Gibbons made the public pay more attention to female gothic fictions. Avril Horner and Sue Zlosniks Daphne du Maurier: Writing, Identity and the Gothic Imagination (1998) was a good example of how to make a theoretical understanding of the “popular” writers in this context can not only expand but also intervene in the debates around the Female Gothic itself.
Influenced by poststructuralism, Paulina Palmer argued in Lesbian Gothic: Transgressive Fictions (1999) that “Gothic and queer share a common emphasis on illicit acts and subjectivities”. (Palmer, 1999: 8) She supposed that over 20year development, studies to the Female Gothic overtook a historical context. The feminist movement and the growth of lesbian/queer studies, which in turn created a readership for texts which diverted, adapted and imitated Gothic modes and motifs to express lesbian subjectivities. It can be said that Palmers concept of “lesbian Gothic” could be reflected backwards to illuminate earlier texts.
Above all, perhaps,in 1990s Female Gothic had experienced the involution from the margins into the mainstream. The most recent development in the field was the return to historicist readings. E. J. Clerys Womens Gothic: From Clara Reeve to Mary Shelley (2000), actually provided a valuable new reading of womens Gothic texts grounded in original historical contextualisation. She argued that their core concerns were “the legitimation of visionary imagination in women writers, methods of representing the passions, the issue of arousing the reader or audience, and the profit motive”. (Clery, 2000, 23) Like the 1994 number of Womens Writing, this kind of edition of Gothic Studies was regarded as a channel of approaching the current state of play in the criticism of the Female Gothic.
Lauren Fitzgerald supposed that Ellen Moers definition to Female Gothic was come from Lockean, which also affected the classic revision of feminism in the 1970s, involving identifying, and reclaiming, a “herstory” of womens writing. Angela Wright argued that this engagement with imagemaking indicated late eighteenthcentury concerns with fashion, opulence and consumerism which become relocated in womens Gothic writing through the correlated issues of female insanity, desire and loss. Diane Long Hoeveler retrospects to the idea of the Enlightenment. Hoeveler argued that Wollstonecraft in Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) was working within a maledominated tradition of Enlightenment values, and that consequently her views are colored by an implicit adherence to this tradition. Hoeveler suggested that this adherence was confirmed by Wollstonecrafts Mary, A Fiction (1788) which provided a sentimental celebration of the passive and weak Female Gothic heroine. Hoeveler argued that such a celebration of passivity had had a deleterious effect on feminism by encouraging women to see themselves as victims as a means, paradoxically, of gaining empowerment.
Diana Wallace thought that the Female Gothic is not just associated with the novel. Using ideas from Modleski and Irigaray, she argued that some nineteenthcentury ghost stories tales explore how a patriarchal culture represses images of the maternal. She added that the ghost story enabled women writers to evade the marriage plots which dominated the earlier Female Gothic, meaning that they could offer a more radical critique of male power, violence and predatory sexuality than was possible in either the realist or Gothic novel.
In twentiethcentury, Female Gothic heroines were not to be trapped in semiruined castles but in domestic spaces. Moreover, Female Comic Gothic was grotesque and blackly comic in its critical assault on patriarchal plots, and so constituted a particular form of the Female Gothic which is prevalent in the twentieth century. For example, English novelist Barbara Comyns The Vets Daughter (1959) and The Skin Chairs (1962) used parody, wit, and humor to expose the horrors of domestic life. Gina Wisker extended the argument about the horrors of domesticity. She argued that Plaths domestic Gothic exposed the duplicities of womens roles and the surprising paradoxes of fear and love, Otherness and self in representations of mothering and marriage.
These essays suggest that, the rigorous debates whichare ongoing around its usage, the term “Female Gothic” is still a flexible and recognizable term for an area which is if anything gaining in vigor and complexity.
2.2Features of Female Gothic
Socalled Female Gothic or Gothic Feminism, there must be feminine factors. Female Gothic plots are unfolded around the secret exposure that patriarch society try to bind women.This kind of fiction highlight female heroine, especially their endeavor to escape enclosure space. So does Twilight. Feminism consciousness reflects womens feelings, emotions, opinions about the world, expresses their desire and pursuits. It is a product that women expect their experience and value could be assured by society. Feminism consciousness requires the equality to male and acknowledgement of female peculiarities. Enslaved by patriarchy, some women accept males standards as their rules, to be a good wife, a kind and affable mother. As the society expected, they become an “angel indoor”. Female Gothic is one literary genre of feminism consciousness expression on the text, describing the arduous journey that female gothic heroine seek their identity in a patriarch society, paying more attention to the manifestation of womens awakening. The literary genre depicts how women deliver themselves from males mental oppression and get rid of a position of subordination, being a woman with independent personality. It also incarnations quintessence of the Female Gothic, that is reappearing the hard process of womens pursuit to selfawareness. Womens selfawareness seems to always develop in oppression—awareness—rebellion in almost Female Gothic fictions.
Heroes in Female Gothic fiction are always gentlemen rather than demons in Gothic fiction. Gentlemen seem to do same things to Female Gothic heroine as demons do. They also enslave women but in a more peaceable way that is closer to reality, occupying and enslaving heroines in conscious level. Moderate demons are a typical image in Gothic Female fiction that fuse halfangel and halfdemon in one. They have exclusive and proud characters and possess supernormal will power against community organization. Playing a role of suppressing womens selfawareness, they are the evil power to expel in Female Gothic fiction. The female in this kind of fiction are called “defeminine women” in patriarch society. They revolt males occupation, doubt male chauvinism, repulse endowed identity of being a mother and good wife, fight against tyrannical religion forces, strive for the desire of being independent women. The Female Gothic kills the “angel” in gentlemens body and overthrows the line of demarcation between “demon” and “angel”.
Gothic novels are characterized by its darksome castle, dungeons, gloomy vault or some places sealed like attic in June Eyre, the height in Wuthering Heights, the gloomy vault in The Fall of the House of Usher. It is acceptable that Female Gothic novels contain this kind of elements. However, the Female Gothic gets rid of the horrific sealed castle and set the story background at a bright realistic modern bedroom. And the bedroom is the “castle”, a place where lock the heroines selfawareness, their houses that the family live stand for womens identities and duties to be a wife and a mother, which are their spiritual home and, meanwhile, the targets they need to fight against. Compared with traditional Gothic fiction, Female Gothic novels weaken the fearful atmosphere as same as dim the real enemy. Blight house blinds heroines eyes, gentle husband or father confuses heroines heart, harmonious family seems to make heroine happy but mix their true selfawareness. Struggles in Female Gothic fiction are harder than traditional Gothic novels, because it is hard to recognize what is “angel” and what is “demon”.
Gothic texts are always covered by mystery, gloomy, horrible atmosphere, filled by suspense, in order to stimulate human the intense nature feeling—the fear. The atmosphere of Female Gothic texts is mainly uncanny, a psychologic term created by Freud, which means strongly familiar. Being in that atmosphere, human find that all the lifeless stuff alive, familiar things twisty, oblivious memories reappeared, the fear to death aroused, and people are supposed to fear. In Female Gothic texts, the house that heroine lived is familiar but also strange for herself. Walls of the house block peoples vision. When human detect its dark center, home will lose all its safety and warm to people and become strange and horrible. The feeling of strange to familiarity is aroused by heroines fear and anxiety in their deep heart, which produced by oppression in a patriarch society. Female Gothic presents uncanny atmosphere through nightmares, stream of consciousness, and illusion. In Twilight, Bellas bad dreams present her worry and horror.
One of the characteristics of the Female Gothic plot is its representation of romantic love. Andrew Smith in “Love, Freud, and the Female Gothic: Bram StokersThe Jewel of Seven Stars” explores how Stokers novel raises some complex questions about love through its use of a male lovestruck narrator, who appears to be caught in a Female Gothic plot which casts him as its hero. In the novel “love” becomes increasingly sinister as it turns into a destabilising and dangerously irrational emotion that ultimately aligns love with feelings of justified horror. As we all know, Twilight is famous for its romantic love story, but what it is saying is not just love. Like Jane Eyre is a Female Gothic story covered with romantic love, Twilight also represents Bellas encourage and persistence. She always knows what she really want, so she answers Edward “enough for now” (Meyer, 2005: 498). That is not saying she will stop here, but will keep going on her planned direction.
Happy ending is another feature of Female Gothic. Heroines in Female Gothic novels have twoside characters and a happy ending demonstrate that they break down repression and restraint gave by maledominate society via unremitting efforts and steadfast will. Women make people feel that they are feminine, passive and oppressive, but when their resistance consciousness is aroused, the stalwart spirit hided in their deeper heart will be erupted. Happy ending is their best pattern of manifestation.
2.3The Effects of Female Gothic in Literary Works
Female Gothic is a new theory compared with Feminism or Gothic. But society is keep changing. Relevantly female position has changed not only in society but in family along the time. In 21st century, women go out to work and sometimes they have their own career. Roles they have play are not just wife and mother, they might fight for housework, salary, social interpersonal relationship, and job opportunities. Women are not an image of shy and “angel indoor” any more, but feminism has not changed from its root, it still fight for freedom and quality. In the fact, women have realized their freedom and quality. In such a situation, Female Gothic provides a new method for emerged oppression in literature field.
In modern world, castle and attic have concluded from its stage, woods is not as gloomy as before, science explains much mystery phenomenon that people regard as horror. Typical elements in tradition Gothic disappear in our life, what replace it is bright house and comfortable bedroom. Met the basic needs of survive, and further equality. Writers begin to seek old legends to enrich their production, something like supernatural appears. Unlike explained supernatural, writers mix romance with supernatural and get a great success. Female Gothic replace dark, gloomy castle with bright modernized building, reflect emerged conflicts about an old theme—sex identity. In this way, it is more persuasive than classical theories.
3. Female Gothic Factors in the Novel of Twilight
As a typical Female Gothic novel, Twilight contains almost all the features as demonstrated before. One gentle hero—Edward, he is deep in love with Bella, the effeminate heroine who remains that she is inferior to Edward. Bella wants to be same with Edward, but Edward disagrees with her. He keeps away from her and expects to protect her in such a way. However, Bella hates this kind of protection, and she desires to be with him no matter what the cost is, even if it is her life. At the end of this story, Bella achieves her dream even if she has experienced dying. Stephenie Meyer adds some Gothic elements in this romantic story. One typical example is she set a vampire as the hero. But this story is not horrible for readers, because Meyer describes untraversed forest as a hotbed for their love, and portrays vampires gloomy house as a bright villa. She prepares the best things for Bella but all these are transformed into barriers in her way to Bellas true happiness—she wants to be with Edward forever.
3.1Female Gothic Heroine—Bella
Isabella Swan was born in a specific family, and she has been living with her remarried mother. Before fourteen, she had been compelled to spend a month in this small town every summer. As time goes on, Bella is a pretty young lady. It is impossible to treat her as a little girl, at the same time she realizes that her mother abandons the desire of traveling with her new husband because of Bellas company. Driven by the sorrow and wishes to her mother, Bella decides to leave for Forks to live with her father for a while. In this small town, Bella meets Edward Cullen, and starts a romantic and thrilling experience or we can call it new life.
3.1.1Bellas Mental Actions
On the one hand, Bella is not as effeminate as she looks. In contrast, she is more independent, more stalwart in her inner heart. When she leaves her beloved mother and chooses to go to Forks, she is confident to herself, even if it is lonely and difficult sometimes. Meyer gives description on Bellas mentality in preface part: “I knew that if Id never gone to Forks, I wouldnt be facing death now. But, terrified as I was, I couldnt bring myself to regret the decision. When life offers you a dream so far beyond any of your expectations, its not reasonable to grieve when it comes to an end.” (Meyer, 2005: 1) When Edward imposes on her another truth using his quite, musical voice and mesmerized eyes, she lost at that moment. “I looked at his concerned, innocent expression and was disoriented again by the force of his goldcolored eyes. What was I asking him?”(Meyer, 2005: 57) But she finally “suddenly remembered...‘You were by your car.’”(Meyer, 2005: 58) She always trusts herself, even though what she saw is not logical. When she knows Edwards identity as a vampire, about three things she is absolutely positive. “First, Edward was a vampire. Second, there was part of him—and I didnt know how potent that part might be—that thirsted for my blood. And third, I was unconditionally and irrevocably in love with him.” (Meyer, 2005: 195) Although her action has touched the social taboos, she chooses to follow her desires.
On the other hand, there is involuntary fear in Bellas deep subconscious. She is sensitive and observant, and she has noticed some weird things happened to Edward, including his changing eyes, ice skin, breathtaking face and so on. When Jacob tells her a scary story about the cold ones, she has been suspicious of Edwards identity of being a vampire, while she is mesmerized by Edward. Bellas ambivalence is presented in her nightmares....and then Edward stepped out from the trees, his skin faintly glowing, his eyes black and dangerous. He held up one hand and beckoned me to come to him. The wolf growled at my feet.
I took a step forward, toward Edward. He smile then, and his teeth were sharp, pointed.
“Trust me,” he purred.
I took another step.
The wolf launched himself across the space between me and the vampire, fangs aiming for the jugular. (Meyer, 2005: 131)
At this time, Bella is not sure that Edward is exactly vampire. We can understand this fear as uncertainty toward future, or a version of inferiority. Born in an incomplete family, not fascinating for boys, pale skin and skimming figure, all these can be the reasons to her inferiority.
3.1.2Bellas Physical Actions
As decisive as Bella, she is busy in pursuing what she wants, but what she wants are not predefined dreams or something grandiose. Her characters are represented when she explores the truth of Edwards power, she refuses her sequential admirers, when she saves her mother at any risks, and she desires to be with Edward no matter what the costs. She can notice nothing but Edward. She says, “I was always good—much more than good—when I was near him.” (Meyer, 2005: 227) She regards Edward as her energy of live, even wants to become a vampire to live with him forever. Meyer sets Bellas basic desire as a starting point, describing her fighting against inequality. As I argued in previous texts, Bella feels inferiority in the relationship with Edward. Maybe becoming a vampire is just a channel to make herself equal with Edward.I intuitively knew—and sensed he did, too—that tomorrow would be pivotal. Our relationship couldnt continue to balance, as it did, on the point of a knife. We would fall off one edge or the other, depending entirely upon his decision, or his instincts. My decision was made, made before Id ever consciously chosen, and I was committed to seeing it through. Because there was nothing more terrifying to me, more excruciating, than the thought of turning away from him. It was an impossibility. (Meyer, 2005: 248)
3.2Female Gothic Atmosphere
Female Gothic atmosphere characterized mainly by Gothic atmosphere, but in some degree, its description is softer than Gothic texts. In Twilight, horrible atmosphere comes from the rainy weather and mysterious woods at Forks, and the image of sealed space is represented by Bellas bedroom.
3.2.1The Weather in Town Forks
The rainy weather in town Forks symbolizes a huge “cage” in Bellas heart.In the Olympic Peninsula of northwest Washington State, a small town named Forks exists under a nearconstant cover of clouds.It rains on this inconsequential town more than any other place in the United States of America. It was from this town and its gloomy, omnipresent shade that my mother escaped with me when I was only a few months old. (Meyer, 2005: 3)
This is Meyers description to Forks, we can know two clues of this town: raining and gloomy. For Bella, who loves sun, does not consider this place as her home honestly. The first couple of months, in other way, the time before she falls in love with Edward, the weather is always rainy or cloudy. It reflects Bellas perplexity about future and a sense of alienation to Forks. “Thick fog was all I could see out my window in the morning, and I could feel the claustrophobia creeping up on me. You could never see the sky here; it is like a cage.” (Meyer, 2005: 11)
When Bella starts date with Edward, the dark and foggy outside of her window become “perfect”. (Meyer, 2005: 196) It is perfect for Edward coming to Bellas world; it is perfect for Bella being with him aboveboard; it is perfect for them two having fun. As is known, because of his vampire nature, Edward cannot go to school in sunny days. The cloudy weather at this period becomes romantic atmosphere. That describing horrible Gothic scenes as soft Female Gothic scenes is not only gloomy weather. The mysterious woods in Town Forks play the same role in Twilight. Edward introduces his world to Bella is inviting her to hike in the woods. He shows what he looks like in the sunlight and tells her some vampire things. Bella is shocking, excited, amusing but not horrified when Edward does these things before her face. For them, the woods are land of idyllic beauty. It is in this place that Bella and Edward understand each other further.
3.2.2Bellas Bedroom
In Female Gothic fiction, the image of “room” is more than a place to live. It emblems an identity of dwellers and an unbroken spirit support to dwellers. On the one hand, it is heroines bastion to defense for themselves from the outside. On the other hand, it is a jail to lock themselves from the inside. Meyer presents Bellas anguish, helplessness and fear for being in a strange place through her sealed bedroom. Bella is not willing to leave her mother and shiny Phoenix, but for her mothers happiness and her fathers company, she puts her feet on this raining town.
At the beginning, she hates Forks whether, shows her indifference to people there, even hates to talk to her schoolmates. Her bedroom makes her feel safe at that time. The sealed bedroom becomes her mind world. She explores the meaning of her life, death, legends about vampire and werewolf, has nightmares about Edwards ferocious look and horrible werewolf in this room. Anyway, the sealed room shows readers Bellas repression and perplexity. In addition, female peculiar body structure specializes their feeling to sealed space. Their body born to closed, and the feeling to sealing is changed by their mature mind. Maiden girls will experience a period time of puberty, in which they survey, perceive, recognize their body and identity. They need cocoon themselves to pull through the puberty. Lacking of guidance from her mother, adolescent Bella seals her bewilderment about her body and mind, and her longing to love up. Her romantic relationship with Edward breaks up her seals and achieves herself.
3.3Female Gothic Plots
Edward reads everyones mind except Bellas, therefore, there must be some mistakes. This plot shows their deep mind to each other. Edward regards his vampire nature as Bellas opponent, while Bella considers that time is her insurmountable barrier. Edward is immortal, but she grows older and older. He is too addicted to his “only enemy” identity in Bellas world to notice heroines feelings. Bellas confession makes her one step forward of equality in this relationship.Hesitantly, always afraid, even now, that he would disappear like a mirage, too beautiful to be real...
...
“What are you afraid of, then?” he whispered intently.
...
“I was afraid...because, for, well, obvious reasons, I cant stay with you. And Im afraid that Id like to stay with you, much more than I should” I looked down at his hands as I spoke. It was difficult for me to say that aloud. (Meyer, 2005: 261,263,266)
Firstly, this scene takes place at gloomy woods in Forks town. Thanks to its gloom and far away sunshine, it is charming for few townspeople. But at the top of this hill, there is an acre of square meadow which is under the sun. It is in this place, Edward shows his real identity to Bella, explains why he absents Biology class, and tells Bella almost everything about his vampire species. For Edward, this place is his private palace, and that he shows Bella here means he accepts her as his girlfriend sincerely; for Bella, this square is not only the most romantic place for date, but a space to be herself, to decides to achieve her wishes courageously; for readers, this small woods is not horrible but pure for love; for The Twilight Saga, this is a place where the story begins.
Secondly, the more perfect Edward is, the less confident Bella is. Her confession indicates that she is not reconciled to be a nestling living under Edwards strong wings on the one hand. She wants if there are some methods to turn her immortal as well on the other hand. The author remains one secluded code for Bellas finally decision, which will be more and more evident in sequel chapters.
4. Conclusion
This paperanalyzes a story being famous for its romance through the approach of Female Gothic theory and proves that this book is more than a romantic work. Female Gothic characterized by its gentler antagonist, supernatural elements, Gothic style, romantic love story and happy ending. The hero, Edward in this book, is not demons but a considerate gentleman. Undoubtedly, he loves Bella deeply. He insists the distance is protection to Bells but he ignores her wishes. Edward is endowed as a perfect boyfriend, having gorgeous appearance, princelike temperament and considerate treatment to Bella. However, all this is blocks for Bella to fulfill her dreams, to be herself. Bella is representative of women of this time. Society vests women equal rights with men but the identities as a wife and a mother imprison women in a house. Bellas story tells readers that no matter what a gorgeous husband one have, once he is in the way to her dreams, just fight against him. No one can stop a woman of following her heart.
In this story, Bella stands for the inferiority against malecontrolled society. Meyer tells us using a love story that even in 21st century when female have gained lots of political rights and juridical rights there are still many unequal points between male and female. Bella gains her happy ending by herself and becomes one perfect model. As a popular book for especially young adults, Twilight is more than a romantic story and this paper provides another way to understand it. It is hopeful that this paper can take a little bit effects on tutorage to young adults. But what point is that as female we must understand ourselves completely and pursuit our dreams bravely.
从《琵琶行》两译本看诗词翻译的忠实与美感
On the Faithfulness and Aesthetics of
Poetry Translation Based on Two Versions of
Song of a Pipa Player
1. Introduction
The twentieth century was the prosperous period of Western literary theory. A large number of foreign theories were introduced into Chinas translation industry, which aware the theoretical consciousness and make the methods of criticism become specific among our Chinese translation sectors. The construction of Chinese translation theory thus run into a new historical stage. Language is full of national character, meanwhile, translation theory should also be rooted in the nations own historical structure and cultural soil. We should learn from and absorb the results of Western theory and also based on the nations own specific history and culture to systematically settle the local translation and express it with modern interpretation.
Today, the practice of ancient poetry translation has made gratifying achievements no matter on translators and translation works. Many ancient poetry works of the English translation have more than ten species. However, when the ancient poetry of English translation practice has made great achievements, what is the situation of ancient poetry theory of English translation? With the aim of promoting the Chinese classical culture, we need to make a comprehensive review and summary of the current situation about the study of the translation of ancient poetry and understand the achievements and shortcomings to clarify the direction of the theory and practice of ancient English poetry.
This thesis consists of five parts. The first part is to introduce the present situation of Chinese poetry translation studies, including the translatability of poetry and the typical theoretical schools. The second part gives a presentation of the principle of “beauty” of translation and gives a brief introduction of Xu Yuanchong and his theories. The third part is devoted to introducing the principle of “faithfulness” and its typical represent Yang Xianyi. The comparison between Xu and Yang about the translation of Song of a Pipa Player will be presented in the fourth part. The fifth part, which is the final one that concludes the achievements and importance of the situation of Chinese classic poetry translation works. The author of this thesis expects that the present topic about the study of the translation theory of Chinese classic poetry will attract more attention to the study of this issue.
2. Literature Review
Nowadays, the development of Chinese poetry translation has gained a lot of achievements in our country as well as foreign nations. Song of a Pipa Player is one of the most famous poem in Tang dynasty, many scholars has studied this poem and made great progress till now.
2.1Study of Song of a Pipa Player
Bai Juyi (772846), with the courtesy name of Le Tian, was a famous poet in Tang Dynasty (618907). He was the most productive poet at that time with more than 3,000 poetic pieces.
In 815 of Tang Dynasty, Bai Juyi was transferred to Deputy Prefect of Jiujing County. In the autumn of 816, when Bai was seeing a friend off at a ferry point at Fan River, in the night he heard the sound of pipa coming from a boat. He listened to the tune and noticed that it resembling melodies from the Capital. Bai enquirer upon the flutist and was told that the girl who played pipa was once a pipa player in Changan and she learned skill from two pipa masters, Mu and Cao. With age of advancing, her beauty faded and subsequently she attached herself to a merchant as his wife. Bai ordered wine and requested this girl to play a few tunes to her hearts desire. Afterwards, the girl was full of thoughts in her mind, recalling her frivolity in youthful days. Now she is miserably uprooted, changing abode among the rivers and lakes. At that time, Bai already left as a court official for two years, after knowing her experiences, Bai only realized the feeling of being in exile. Therefore Bai Juyi composed this lengthy song, totaling 621 words, in tribute to the pipa player, entitled Song of a Pipa Player.
At present, many people scholars has studied Song of a Pipa Player, but most of these studies focus on its Chinese text. This thesis will focus on its English translation and analyze the differences between these translations. Nowadays, the English translations about Song of a Pipa Player is not plentiful, so this thesis will choose two famous translators work and study its advantages and disadvantages. They are Xu Yuanchong and Yang Xianyi.
2.2Study of Chinese Poetry Translation
Tang poetry is one of the most famous types of literature in China. It is a bright pearl in the treasure house of Chinese culture. At the same time, Tang poetry had a profound influence on the surrounding countries and the cultural development of the nation. In the West, the development of the translation of Tang poetry has gone through three stages: the beginning, the development and the prosperity. The first stage was started from 19th century, Tang poetry translation was mainly introduced by the Chinese diplomats and missionaries. They made great efforts to bring the treasure of Tang poetry into the European cultural circle, of which the most famous scholar is the British Sinologist Morrisons translation on the Nine Qi Shan Heights. The second stage is the first half of the twentieth century, the object of translation is more targeted than before, and the translation of individual poets works is more indepth. The third stage is from the midtwentieth century till now, the main representative is the Sinologist Yuwen, who published Early Tang Poems in 1977, Tang Poetry in 1981 and the Late Tang Poetry in 2006.
In the 21st century, the most important feature of the study about English translation theory of ancient poems is that the research of various paths is systematic and begins to learn to form their own basements about translation theory. In 2002, the first national English translation seminar was held in Shijiazhuang. Marking the beginning efforts of Chinese poetry translation and the sign of scholars hard work. Then, in 2003 and 2004, the second and third session of the National Classics English translation seminars were held, plenty of classical poetry translation monographs were published one after another, the ancient poetry of English translation ushered in the climax of theoretical construction.
3. The Present Situation of Chinese Poetry Translation Studies
In the past three years, the development of the translation theory of Chinese ancient poetry has made great progress. However, there are also many questions for translators to think.
3.1The Translatability of Poetry
Since the appearance of translation, the debate that whether Chinese classical poetry can be translated into English or not has never stopped. Some famous scholars and poets have made it clear that poetry is untranslatable. For example, Shelly once said that trying to translate poetry is futile and the creation of a poet from one language to another language just likes putting a violet into a citrus pot, which is an attempt to explore its color and fragrance structure, but it is not wise one. Robert Frost even more straightforward that poetry is lost in the translation of things. In fact, this is a selfevident problem. If the poems are untranslatable, the masterpieces of Dante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Shelley, Hugo, Pushkin, Tagore and other famous poets have long been transformed into multinational words to make the world realize the value of their poetry. Meanwhile, the Chinese classical poetry, has also been regarded as treasure of the world for a long time. Mr. Fan Chuanzhong said that although some poetry is difficult to translate, but it is impossible that poetry cannot be translated. Mr. Liu Zongde also said that poetry can be translated, but difficult to translate.
I agree with the view that poetry can be translated. Although poetry is the most profound and impenetrable style of language, it is not impossible to be translated. Free verse has its own difficulty to translate but metrical poetry is more complicated, especially the Chinese classical poetry. Chinese language is profound. Strict grammar, profound allusions, ingenious puns and unique poetic style are the difficulties that scholars will meet during the process of translating; and the total number of Chinese phonology is greater than English phonology in fact. It is also one of the reasons that why classical poetry is much more difficult to translate in CE translation.
3.2Theoretical Schools and Controversy of Poetry Translation
What is the highest standard of poetry translation? It is a question that people has asked for many years. Our country has not formed a rigorous and theoretical system of translation studies till now, and it is not easy to answer the question concisely from the theory. For a long time, due to the poor and weak situation of the theory, the translation practice and theory of China are seriously out of touch; some people even completely ignore the necessary principles of translation and try to translate the original works. This situation is worrying and must be changed as soon as possible. The translation of classical poetry should be guided by a rulebased theoretical system. This theoretical system is a scientific reference coefficient, which will serve as a criterion for measuring the level of translation of ancient poetry.
Before discussing this issue, it is necessary to briefly review the various translation theories in China. Liu Jingzhi said that strictly speaking, Chinas translation theory began from Yan Fus theory of translation. Over the past 80 years, Yan Fus “faithfulness、expressiveness and elegance” theory has left an important impact on Chinese translation work. Since then, Lin Yutangs three standards of “faithfulness, smoothness, beauty” and the “sentence translation” and “general meaning” principle, Lin Yiliangs “spiritual fit” theory and Qian Zhongshus “real” realm are all the development of Yans theory. This article will mainly introduce the translation theory of Xu Yuanchong and Yang Xianyi and try to contrast their views about the translation of poetry.
4. The Representatives of Poetry Translation Theory
There are many principles of translation theory, such as the principle of “beauty”, the principle of “faithfulness” and so on. Thesis will mainly introduce these two principles to analyze the development of the translation theory of Chinese classical poems.
4.1Detailed Introduction of Xu Yuanchongs Translation Theories
Xu Yuancong is one of the most famous translators in our country. The principle of three beauties is one of his famous translation theories, which has influenced a lot of people.
Professor Xu Yuanchong, born in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province in 1921, was admitted to the Department of Foreign Languages of theNational Southwestern Associated University when he was 17. He entered the Tsinghua University Institute in 1944 and went to study in Europe. Several years later after returning home, he became professor of English working in Beijing, Zhangjiakou, Luoyang and other foreign language schools; in 1983 he entered Peking University and served as one of the professors of foreign language college, international relations college and journalism and finally retired in 1991. Before he retired from Peking University, he has published 20 translation works no matter in Chinese or French, after the retirement, he also published 40 Chinese and French translation works, and put forward the Chinese school literature translation theory.
Xu Yuanchongs works were published in the domestic and abroad, including sixty English and French translation works, such as Book of Songs, Chu, and other Chinese and foreign famous works. In 1999 he was nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature.
4.1.1The Beauty in Sense
The word “sense”, a term in Chinese classical aesthetics, refers to the artistic expression in writers works and peoples internal aesthetic experience, cognition, and interests in the reality; it also forms the core of artistic creation in Chinese poetry. Though stirred by the real world, it is commonly considered to occur in the mental world. Applied to the field of poetry, it refers to that through vivid depiction of imagery, the poet cast their profound thoughts and strong emotions into wrought and welldefined words in a reserved way so as to create the world.
The meaning of the beauty in sense, refers to the translation to convey the original beauty produced by a mood or associative scene. On this point, Mr. Qian Zhongshu also proposed the similar translation theory. Xu Yuanchong pointed out that the issue of “beauty in sense” is sometimes caused because of some historical or associative reasons. When the poem is translated into another language, without the same historical reasons, it cannot cause the same association, it is not easy to convey the original meaning of the original poem. Therefore, the translation of a poem is not only do we express its superficial meaning, but also express its deep meaning, in other words, it means that not only have we to express the original meaning among words of the poem, but also to express its meaning inside the poem.
4.1.2The Beauty in Sound and Form
The beauty in sound refers that the translator can borrow the metrical of the poet to choose the similar sound like the original rhyme. In addition, the translator can translate the poem with double sound, rhyme, repetition and other meaningful and useful methods to reach the aim of expressing the beauty in sound of the poem. But if the beauty in sound is not desirable, there is no need to force.
The beauty in form refers to the length of every sentence and the antithetical and neat of the poem. Xu Yuanchong especially emphasizes the importance of the beauty in sound and form, the aim is to keep the rhyme and structure of the original poem. As for the beauty in form, as well as the length and symmetry, it is the best and the most important one that we should achieve the beauty in form, at least the poem should keep neat.
4.2Detailed Introduction of Yang Xianyis Translation Theories
Yang Xianyi is one representative person of the principle of “faithfulness”, which is clearly an opposed view towards Xus attitudes. Yang Xianyi, born in January 1915 in Tianjin, a traditional national bourgeois family, native of Sizhou, Anhui Province. His father was the governor of Tianjin Bank of China, and one of Chinas most outstanding financiers at that time. Yang Xianyi went into a small reading private school in 12 years old, and then he studied in the British Church School in Tianjin French Concession. In the spring of 1936, Yang Xianyi got through the examination to enter Oxford University to study. In 1940 he got married with a British missionary daughter Gladys B.Tayler and returned China. In the 1940s he spent most of his time in Sichuan, Guizhou, Nanjing and other places to work as a common translator. In 1952, Yang Xianyi was invited to work in the Beijing Foreign Language Publishing Company and lived in Beijing for nearly 40 years.
Mr. Yangs academic works are plentiful. He is one of the famous contemporary Chinese scholars, with wonderful achievements, especially in the translation of Chinese classical literature. Academics called the translation of the whole of China. He won “Translation Culture Lifetime Achievement Award” in 2009.
4.2.1The Translatability and Untranslatability of Chinese Poetry
Yang Xianyi analyses translation from the point of view of dialectic, especially in literary translation of “translatability” and “untranslatability”. On the one hand, Yang Xianyi firmly believe that everything can be translated, because the basis of translation is the commonality of human nature.
“Translation is a tool which we often uses as a medium to communicate with other national languages, people in different regions or countries are human beings, human thoughts and feelings are interchangeable, in this sense, everything should be translated for whatever reasons, otherwise, humans can only closed the country and cannot exchange ideas or other valuable information with others.” (Yang Xianyi, 1998: 8283)
On the other hand, he also pointed out that when the translator translate literary works, it is impossible to convey some cultural meaning to people who live in a different cultural background.
“However, since the human is divided into many countries and regions, which lead to the formation of different cultures and languages. For tens of millions of years, each ethnic group on other things will have their own different associations, which is often difficult for foreigners to understand. For example, Chinese people often see ‘willow’ as a symbol of farewell, this association from the feelings of different cultural traditions of foreigners may not be able to fully understand.... There are many other cultural differences, and these are difficult to fully convey in the translation. In this respect, it is difficult to say that the translation is totally ‘faithful’ and ‘expressive’, especially in literary translation.” (Yang Xianyi, 1998: 83)
4.2.2The Faithfulness of Chinese Poetry Translation
The “faithfulness” means that the translation cannot go too far from the original poem. Yang Xianyi often stressed that translators need to be faithful to the original poem or text, the original content is not allowed to increase or decrease to a certain extent for whatever reason. For example, foreigners feel that the rose is very beautiful, while Chinese people have a different idea that they think peony is the most beautiful flower, translated rose into peony, which only achieves the principle of “expessiveness”, ignores the “faithfulness”.
“I think that during the process of translating, there does not need too much explanation. Translators should be faithful to the original image, not exaggerated, and do not contain any other things. Of course, if the translation does not find the equivalent thing, it will certainly lost some of the original meaning, but too much emphasis on creativity is wrong, because in this way, it is not translating, but rewrite the chapter.”(Yang Xianyi, 1989: 84)
There is one point to note:Yang Xianyis principle of “faithfulness” stresses “faith” for the “original image”, that is, the original poem embodies the cultural spirit. From the perspective of translating Chinese literary works, it is necessary to faithfully translate “faithfulness” at the heart of Chinese culture and the spirit of Chinese civilization. This is not just a translation of Chinese cultural heritage, but also involves truly conveying the value of Chinese culture, the soul and life of Chinese people, their happiness and sadness, love and hate, pity and blame, joy and anger.
5. Comparisons of Two Theories and Translations
Both Xu and Yang are very famous translators in our country. They also translated Song of a Pipa Player. While Xu Yuanchong focuses on the principle of beauty but Yang Xianyi focuses on the principle of faithfulness.
5.1The Differences of Two Principles
Every translation work should be based on one or two theories or principles. Different translators have their own views and attitudes towards the work of translating.
5.1.1The Principle of Translation Aesthetics
Peter Newmark says that poetry is a genre which closely related with emotion, the main function is to let the readers get the aesthetic experience from the author. The purpose of the translation is to convey the meaning of images of the poet to readers and let readers realize the beauty of the original poem, so not only the description of the original text, but also the same meaning of culture between thetranslation and the original should be find to express. The delivery means the same passing of the beauty existing in the poem. Because of the complexity of Chinese classical poetry according to its content and subtle aesthetic imagery, translation theory in western countries is not entirely suitable for poetry translation. Some of the information in Chinese poetry has a specific cultural background and is difficult to be understood by Western culture, so the translator has to translate the meaning of the image itself and the function of the image. (Gu Zhengyang, 2006:56) Chinese translation theory is very important in the field of classical poetry translation.
Xu Yuanchongs “Three Beauties” theory is an important theory and guiding principle for many people in the development of poetry translation. In the theory of Xu, the beauty of poetry lies in three aspects which includes the beauty in sense, the beauty in sound and the beauty in form, and the translation needs to reproduce the beauty in sense, the beauty in form and the beauty in sound. He said that translators not only need to be satisfied to pass the surface view of the original poem, but also should strive to pursue the rewrite of the beauty of the words. For these three beauties, the beauty in sense is the most meaningful one which we should pay more attention to, the beauty in sound is the second important one and the beauty in form is ranked third. Therefore, if you cannot follow the principles of the three beauties at the same time, with the aim of achieving the meaning of the poetry, the form of reproduction should be the first one to be abandoned, and then the phonology. (Xu Yuanchong, 2003:45) It is the scholars duty to make the translation of the original poem be faithful. However, it can best make up the missing of the meaning between two different cultures if one make efforts to reappear the beauty of the poem.
5.1.2The Principle of Faithfulness
“Faithfulness” is an important aspect about the translation theory of Chinese classical poetry translation, which lies a main position when translators doing translation works.
The term “faithfulness” is rich in meanings, the first one is be faithful to original and translator be restraint. One representative translator is Yang Xianyi. When talking to Yang Xianyis translation style, the translation industry generally thinks that he always regards that alienation is the first one and the naturalization is the second.
The second one is content first and followed by the form. Because of the differences in speech between Chinese and English, it is difficult to interpret the musicality of the original, so if the translation must strictly follow the rhyme of the original poem, the content of the original poem must be lost. Therefore, in order to faithful to the original content, the form of the poem should be put in the second place.
This idea that the content is more important than the form of poetry is quite different from Xu Yuan Chongs translation philosophy. The two masters have gained a lot of progress when translating the ancient poetry, but the difference between them is quite obvious, it is mainly because of the different understanding of the word “faithfulness”. In addition to conveying the content of the original poem, Xu Yuanchong advocated that translating poems should also involve the form and phonology, so the three beauties consist of the beauty in sense, sound and form should be translated. Meanwhile, the principleof “faithfulness” of works should include three aspects: content, form and style. While Yang Xianyi believes that the pursuit of faithfulness of poetry on the rhyme will inevitably lead to the result that content is not enough “faithful”. So he always uses the prose style in his translation works.
5.2A Contrastive Analysis of Classical Versions
Poetry is the most difficult part in all kinds of styles of translation because of its shortest form and most abundant meaning. This chapter is to choose two English versions of Song of a Pipa Player, respectively translated by Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie and Xu Yuanchong.
5.2.1The Translation of Image
During the process when poets are writing or when reviewers are criticizing, artistic conception and image are the two terms which are most used in translation works. Artistic conceptions belong to the type of aesthetics, which is a kind of objective categorizations. While images are typical things in actual, which belong to subjective categorization. They are specific, concrete and can be perceived. These two terms are the core of Chinese traditional aesthetics, as well as the key points of Chinese classical poems.
In the Song of a Pipa Player, through the detailed description about the girl who played pipa and her lonely life. The poet expressed an artistic conception of loneliness and depression, which was full of expression and infection. While the image of sound came from the music played by the girl, gentle or lively. For example, the sentence “大珠小珠落玉盘” is full of beauty of music.
To a large extent, Bai Juyi always express his thoughts and artistic conceptions according to imaginary. There are often natural images in his poems, such as rivers, moon and so on.
Table 51The Translation of Image
Translator
Chinese textYang Xianyi, Dai NaidieXu Yuanchong
去来江口守空船Leaving her alone in the boat
at the mouth of the riverLeaving his lonely wife
in empty boat
绕船月明江水寒All around the moonlight is
bright, the river is coldShrouded in moonlight,
on the cold river I floats
The husband of the girl always works out and leaves herself in the boat. The merchant often keens on making money and does not think a lot of art and felling. Surrounded by the moonlight, the girl felt sad and miserable aside the silvery river. “守空船” these three words describes the loneliness. In the first translation, Yang and Dai translate it into “leaving her alone”, which is faithful to the original but lacks of artistic effect. In the second one, Xus translation includes some key words like “lonely” and “empty”, which is the closest one to the original. Translators should try their best to create the equivalent artistic conceptions in the target article. Dramatist Maria thinks that translators need to take efforts to understand the original text and try to express happiness, depression and sadness.
Table 52The Translation of Image
Translator
Chinese textYang Xianyi, Dai NaidieXu Yuanchong
枫叶荻花秋瑟瑟Chill the autumn, red the
maple leaves and in
flower the reedsIn maple leaves
and rushes autumn
seemed to sigh
This sentence introduce the background scene of the story. The poet listed three images to describe the scene of autumn—“枫叶”“荻花” and “秋风” to express the sadness of being exiled. Yang and Dai chose direct translation to translate this sentence, in the original text, “枫叶” and “荻花” are both two words, “秋瑟瑟” are three words. Yang and Dai used “chill”, “red” and “in flower” to make the translation read in rhythm. While in Xus translation, besides “maple leaves”, “autumn” and “rushes”, he also used a verb—“sigh” to describe the beauty of the autumn, the person who actually sighs is the poet.
Table 53The Translation of Image
Translator
Chinese textYang Xianyi, Dai NaidieXu Yuanchong
醉不成欢惨将别Drunk without joy, in sadness they must partWithout flute songs we drank our cups with heavy heart
别时茫茫江浸月At the time of parting the river seems steeped in moonlightThe moonbeams blended with water when we were to part
When to express “不成欢” and “惨”, Yang and Dai used “without joy” and “in sadness” while Xu used one phrase “with heavy heart”. Both of them followed the principle of faithfulness. When to express “茫茫” and “江浸月”, Yang and Dai used “the river seems steeped in moonlight” and Xu used “the moonbeams blended with water” to express the atmosphere of loneliness. It formed a sense of strong pressure with the former expression—“with heavy heart”， “without joy” and “in sadness”.
5.2.2The Translation of Allusion
Allusion is a linguistic phenomenon which cones from figures of speech used in classical and modern literature. It is a part of Chinese traditional culture. In the process of translation, allusions should be treated seriously. Bai Juyi is good at using allusions, which is also a reason why his works can be spread for a long time. There are many famous allusions in Song of a Pipa Player. For example,
Table 54The Translation of Allusion
Translator
Chinese textYang Xianyi, Dai NaidieXu Yuanchong
五陵年少争缠头Youths from wealthy districts vied in their gifts to engage herThe gallant young men vied to shower gifts on me
（续表）
Translator
Chinese textYang Xianyi, Dai NaidieXu Yuanchong
一曲红绡
不知数A single song brought her countless rolls of red silkOne tune played, countless silk rolls were given with glee
其间旦暮
闻何物？From dawn till dusk I hear no other soundsWhat is here to be heard from daybreak till nightfall
杜鹃啼血
猿哀鸣But the wailing of nightjars and the moaning of apesBut gibbons cry and cuckoos homeward going call?
In the first example, “五陵” refers to the tombs of five emperors in the Western Han Dynasty, which was located in the north of Chang An. In Tang Dynasty, the government encouraged rich people live around the tombs. So “五陵年少” refers to rich young people. In the second example, the allusion is “杜鹃啼血”. There is one of the myths of ancient China, in the late yeas of Zhou Dynasty, an emperor had to give up his position and abdicated it to another governor. Finally he had to hide in the hill. After his death, his soul became a cuckoo and the cuckoo always cry with great woe and bleed. Therefore, in the myths of ancient China, cuckoo become a symbol of loneliness and sadness.
All these translation has expressed the original meaning of the allusion, but the translators didnt add any footnotes. Therefore, it is difficult for readers to understand the complicated culture and historical background, they can just know the surface meaning of the poem. For translators, they need to realize allusions in different culture. In addition, they can add some footnotes to explain the cultural background to help readers understand the poem.
6. The Achievements of Poetry Translation and Its Importance
With the heat of the Chinese and the settle of the Confucius Institute around the world, foreigners become more interested in Chinese culture. Tang poetry as a microcosm of Chinese culture, set history, culture, economy, connotation and other points in one. The image is the key medium to convey the meaning of poetry. Imagery is an important concept of China in ancient culture, which is embodied in the creation of classical poetry.
In a sense, the translation of poetry is also the translation of image, a Tang poetry translation process, is the image of the poem in English reorganization and reproduction process.
In the 18th century, English poet and linguist Sir William Jones translated book of songs into English, he was the first one who translates Chinese poem into English at that time. However, the systemic translation that foreign scholars made about Chinese classical poems happened after the middle of 19th century. There are many foreign scholars and poets who try to translate Chinese classical poems, such as Herbert Giles, Ezra pound, Arthur Wally, Witter Bynner and so on. However, due to the great differences about language and culture background between China and other foreign countries, foreigners can hardly understand the actual meaning of the original poem, especially some allusions.
In the 21st century, the biggest feature about poetry translation is that all kinds of translation theory goes into systemic development. In 2002, the First Annual Meeting of CE Translation of Chinese Classics was opened in Shi Jiazhuang, it was the sign that our Chinese has made efforts in translation of Chinese poetry. The second and third meeting was opened in 2003 and 2004, a lot of related books were published. Meanwhile, the English translation of ancient poetry ushered in the climax of theoretical construction.
7. Conclusion
This thesis mainly focuses on the differences between two translations about Song of a Pipa Player. Yang and Xu are both the masters who translate Chinese classical poetry into English. The thesis compares the translation theory of these two scholars and discovers that the principle of faithfulness and the principle of beauty are all important for poetry translation. No matter which kind of work has to be translated, we must follow some theories as our basement. There is no prefect translation in the world, what we can do is try our best to give consideration to all kinds of factors.
Through a lot of work, this thesis still has many shortcomings, due to the shortage of the sources and the lack of professional skills and knowledge, it cannot focus on the comprehensive sources and there are still some questions need to answer.
For a long time, the translation theory about Chinese classic poetry has developed a lot, but these theories are also facing some challenges and difficulties. For example, the controversy between the principle of “faithfulness” and the principle of “beauty” still exists. For these questions, we should pay more attention on these aspects:
First, due to the fast development of all kinds of translation theories, every theory can learn from each other, thus we can form a more prefect translation system to pursue more achievements. Translation studies are multidisciplinary. The development of translation theory needs to draw on the research results of many related disciplines. If you want to make a paradigm constantly improve and mature, you must learn from other paradigms of some theory or research methods to make up for their own shortcomings and advantages. The establishment of a pluralistic complement of ancient poetry theories system must first establish a theoretical framework. On this issue, we must pay attention to the special nature of Chinese ancient poetry. The language of ancient Chinese poetry has the characteristics of leaping, fuzziness, and musicality.
Second, the study of the theory of English translation about ancient poems should learn from the scientific science research methods to enhance the scientific and persuasive of the theory, and avoid the empty theory of perception and experience.
Third, the significance of translation works of ancient poetry is to promote the ancient culture of China, it is the translators and practitioners responsibility to promote the Chinese classical culture. The purpose of translation can determine the translation strategy to a large extent. Therefore, the translation of classical poetry should first clarify what we need to promote: the art of classical poetry? Or the cultural connotation of the allusion contained in the poetry? Or the profound truth implied through the touching story? The different answers determines different views about translation theory of Chinese poetry.
The author believes that the ancient Chinese poetry is characterized by refining the subtle language and the form of antithesis to express the rich connotation and giving a great shock and aesthetics to enjoy. This kind of art of literature is what the world culture lacks of and we should pay more attention to it. It is the basic requirement of translation activities to introduce Chinese classic poetry into the world. The English translation of Chinese ancient poems should keen on both form and sense.
肢体语言在农村小学英语教学中的应用
——以魏家滩小学为例
The Application of Body Language in English
Teaching in Rural Primary Schools
—Taking Wei Jiatan Primary School as an Example
1. Introduction
Human communication consists of verbal communication and nonverbal communication. Many investigations have shown that the information delivered by verbal communication is only 35% and the rest part of it is delivered through nonverbal communication. Linguist David Abercrombie points out that people speak with vocal language, but people talk with the entire body. (Zhan, 2010) In addition, Terence Hawkes also points out that “No one is only talking. Any speech acts include the information transferred from gestures, postures, facial expressions, eyes contact and other such languages to complete”. From that it can be clearly seen the nonverbal communication plays an important role in human communication.
English teaching plays a vital part in school education. With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, more and more English teachers are required to organize the class in English and create English input atmosphere so that they can better educate students. In other words, English teachers should guide students and make students express basically in English in class. However, with the limitations of students vocabulary and expression in primary schools, it is difficult for the primary students to understand what English teachers convey in English in class. Therefore, in order to inspire students learning interest to enhance their learning efficiency, English teachers in primary schools need not only use the spoken language and written language to carry out teaching activities, but also make full use of the body language to make students easily comprehend and acquire knowledge in classes.
Body language in primary English classes is to assist teaching. It is an important auxiliary means and supplement to the sound language. If teachers can use body language correctly, naturally and harmoniously, teachers can organize the teaching process well, inspire students to learn, and improve teaching effectiveness. At the same time, teachers friendly appearance can greatly stimulate students enthusiasm for English learning.
2. Literature Review
Nonverbal communication is an important way in which people can make for better communication. Body Language is a vital form of nonverbal communication, and has a great influence on human communication. Many foreign and domestic scholars have studied nonverbal communication.
2.1Theoretical Basis
Body language, as an important nonverbal communication, plays a very important role in English teaching in classes. It is necessary to know the related information of body language.
2.1.1The Definition of Body Language
Spoken language and body language all belong to the communication methods. But what is body language on earth? Body language, also known as kinesics or posture language, is a nonverbal communication method. Body language is a means of communication and a special way of language expression through gestures, facial expressions, eyes contact, postures, appearances and other nonverbal behaviors. It is a silent language. It is a form of nonverbal communication in which physical behavior, as opposed to words, are used to express or convey information. Body language exists in both animals and humans. Body language is widely used in our daily lives. Body language can express what people are feeling or thinking by the way people move body rather than by words. (Oxford Advanced Learners EnglishChinese Dictionary, 2004)
2.1.2The Classifications of Body Language in English Teaching
In English teaching, eyes contact, gesture, facial expression and posture are four major kinds of body language.
The eyes are the window of the soul, and eyes can best express delicate emotions. In other words, the eyes are an important channel for people to exchange their feelings. From eye contact people can see doubt, anger, and other complicated feelings. Edison said, “Mans eyes are as much as the tongue says.” And people can learn everything from eye language without dictionaries. Therefore, it is a particularly important skill of nonverbal communication for teachers to narrow the distance between teachers and students through eye contact. Few other physical behaviors can convey the overall situation more than eye contact.
“Gesture means we communicate and express our thoughts by the movement and manners of our hands and fingers.”( Liu Yongfa, Liu Xueen, 1997) Gesture is a movement of part of body and includes movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. Gesture is also a form of body language which can intuitively convey peoples feelings and intentions. In daily life, people can use gestures to express rich personal emotions and it is the most expressive body language.
Facial expression is a “world language” in human society. Commonly, peoples joy, worry, anger, sadness, fear, and panic can all be reflected in their facial expressions. The famous writer Romain Rolland said, “Facial expression is a successful language that developed through many centuries and much more complex than the language that comes from the mouth.” Therefore, teachers can use the facial expression depending on different situations in classrooms.
In humans, posture can provide a significant amount of important information through nonverbal communication. It is the most explicit means of expression in body language. In classroom teaching, the main position of the teacher is standing, that is, standing on the platform or moving back and forth. Experiments show that teachers different positions will give students different psychological feelings. In English teaching, teachers can provide students with a good visual experience with a proper gesture and can make the students have a good mood.
2.1.3The Functions of Body Language in English Teaching
In the English teaching in primary schools, body language not only stimulates students interest in learning, but also creates the lively teaching atmosphere in class and promotes teacherstudent interaction. It also helps students understand the meaning of words and sentences and improves teaching efficiency. Body language is an auxiliary teaching tool. In English classes in primary school, the use of body language in conjunction with classroom teaching is conducive to helping students understand the teaching contents more easily, more accurately, and more profoundly. Its main functions are as follows:
(1) Feedback function
The pupils joys and sorrows will be clearly revealed. The body language is the main form to express students inner conditions and intentions. In the special environment in classroom teaching, the most convenient and effective way for teachers to obtain feedback on teaching is to observe students facial expressions, gestures and other body languages.
(2) Auxiliary communication function
In addition to verbal language, body language also plays an important role in communicating thoughts and feelings between teachers and students. The English teaching in primary school focuses on communicative activities between teachers and students. Lively, vivid, and even exaggerated facial expressions and postures enable teachers to actively activate the classroom atmosphere according to the actual situation of classroom teaching, thereby facilitating the communication activities. Besides, positively affirmative body language can inadvertently shorten the psychological distance between teachers and students, and make primary school students feel teachers friendliness, understanding, affirmation and respect for themselves, and make the teacherstudent relationship harmonious.
(3) The function to organize teaching
In English teaching in primary school, teachers can use different spoken words to organize classroom teaching according to teaching contents, teaching steps, and students learning emotions. At the same time, teachers use a variety of body languages to match oral language, which not only guarantees teachers full expression of their intentions, but also allows students to fully comprehend the teachers intentions, thus facilitating the smooth implementation of teaching.
(4) Emotional activation function
By using body language to create a pleasant and lively atmosphere in the classroom, students can have a positive and joyful feeling. This kind of emotion has the power and catalysis to make primary students mental activities more agile and more effective.
2.2Foreign Researches on Body Language
In the past, some scholars began to study nonverbal communication. In 1950s, the publication of Birdwhistells Introduction to Kinesis in 1952 and E. T. Halls The Silent Language in 1959 marked the start of nonverbal communication as a discipline. The first book named after nonverbal communication is Jurgen Rueschs Nonverbal communication: Notes and Visual Perception of Human Relations. The term “body language” is first proposed by Fast in his work Body Language in 1970s. And at the same time, E.T. Halls The Silent Language and Beyond Culture made deep exploration of nonverbal communication. Besides, there are works relating to nonverbal communication, such as Darwins The Expression of the Emotion in Man and Animals, Kretschers Physique and Character and The Variation of Human Physique, Efrons Gesture and Environment. From the above it can be known nonverbal communication is an important part of human communication.
The application of body language in education has been a hot topic for educational researchers. And some researchers have specifically studied the application of body language in the field of education. Western scholars think that body language in classroom has more important effect on the teaching. And there are many researches that point out teachers should know how to use body language to improve the quality of classroom teaching. It has been found that the teachers facial expression is more effective than speech in attracting students attention and response. (Wolfgang, 1979) The linguists Stevick and Bavnell (Alasteir Pennycook, 1985) state that body language can be a good supplementary teaching means to teachers in managing classroom interaction. Furthermore, Cooper P. J. remarks that body language is quite important for improving teachers teaching and students leaning if teachers use body language in English classroom teaching.
Nowadays, in English teaching in primary schools the TPR teaching method is advocated, which is the Total Physical Response method. This kind of teaching method depends largely on the rational use of body language. This shows that body language plays a very important role in the teaching process.
2.3Domestic Researches on Body Language
Since 1980s, China has joined the academic team on nonverbal communication, so Chinese scholars have focused their attention on nonverbal communication in the late 1980s. The first book concerning body language was Geng Erlings An Introduction to Body Language published by Beijing Language Institute Press in 1988. Then Hu Wenzhong published four books on intercultural communication, all of which include some articles on nonverbal communication.
The Art of Teachers Body Language written by Zhuang Jinying introduces the classifications and functions of body language in details. The Intercultural Nonverbal Communication by Bi Jiwan, a scholar of intercultural language, illuminates the functions of body language in communication and English teaching. The book Body Language and Foreign Language Teaching written by teachers Zhang Yifang and Chen Wenfeng mainly introduces body language and classroom teaching, especially the application of body language in foreign language teaching. Hu Zhiying believes that the application of body language in the primary English classes not only stimulates childrens interest in learning English, but also effectively improves the quality of the class in Learning Body Language in Primary School English Classroom.
The application of body language in education has been concerned by a large number of people in the education sector, who believe that body language can play an auxiliary role in teaching of foreign languages.
3. Research Design
This paper intends to explore the application of body language in English teaching in rural primary schools. Therefore this survey is based on the specific purpose to design.
3.1Research Questions
The purpose of the paper is to find out the current situation of the application of body language in English teaching in rural primary schools, so based on it, some research questions were put forward as follows: (1) Investigating teachers consciousness to use body language in English teaching. (2) Investigatingstudents ‘attitudes toward teachers’ use of body language in class. (3) Investigating the situation of teachers use of body language in different teaching steps.
3.2Research Objects
In this study, the respondents were students in Wei Jiatan Primary School which is a rural public school. In order to get reliable data, one hundred and twenty students in total were chosenfrom grade 3 to grade 6. There were two classes in each grade. Twenty students in average were chosen from each class, which can represent students different English levels. To some extent, the situation of this school can represent that of most primary schools in local areas.
3.3Research Instruments
In order to learn about thecurrent situation of application of body language in English teaching in primary schools, in the paper, the methods of questionnaire and classroom observation were used.
3.3.1Questionnaire
Simply speaking, questionnaire is to collect data. It is one of the cheapest and most feasible ways of gathering data. To make the questionnaire truly effective, it has to be designed well.
The questionnaire consisted of 17 questions. There were 16 multiple choice questions, and the last question was to make students offer some suggestions for teachers. The questionnaire was designed for students in Wei Jiatan Primary School. The objects were primary school students, so the questionnaire was designed in Chinese so that the primary school students could better understand and answer. The questionnaire was answered during their break time. It was easier and more straightforward to see the existing problems. It could help us to effectively analyze problems and come up with some reasonable solutions.
3.3.2Classroom Observation
Classroom observation is a formal or informal teaching observation while it is taking place in a classroom or other learning environments. Typically conducted by fellow teachers, administrators, or instructional specialists, classroom observations are often used to provide teachers with constructive critical feedback aimed at improving their classroom management and instructional techniques.
In order to find out the current situation of teachers application of body language in English teaching, it was further investigated through classroom observation. And three classes were chosen to be observed from Grade 3 to Grade 6, and one class was chosen in each grade. By means of this, it was more direct to make clear primary school students behaviors and teachers use of body language in the classrooms. In addition, it is to observe the students reactions to the teachers body language.
3.4Data Collection
There were one hundred and twenty pieces of questionnaire in total, which were handed out to 120 students respectively in 6 classes from Grade 3 to Grade 6. The questionnaires were answered duringtheir spare time, without their English teacher present. Therefore students can be more likely to offer the true information. These questions in the questionnaire were answered in 15 minutes. Most of the respondents were willing to help with the survey. They finished the questionnaires carefully. All the questionnaires sent out had been taken back to be used for the data collection and analysis. Among the questionnaires reclaimed, some questions were answered completely, and others were answered casually, which brought some trouble when doing the data collection.
Classroom observations were conducted with the permission of three English teachers. Three English classes were chosen to be observed from Grade 3 to Grade 6 and there were 45 minutes per class. In order to obtain more realistic class data, teaching procedures were carefully observed, and the purpose of observation wasnt explained to students and teachers.
4. Results and Discussions
Through the data collection and analysis, the current situation of body language in English teaching in rural primary schools and the influence of body language on students are basically found.
4.1Teachers Consciousness to Use Body Language in
English Teaching
According to questions16, it can be used to investigate the degree of emphasis of English teachers on body language. Among the questions, 1 and 2 were chosen to make the table in detail, the result is shown in Table 41 and Table 42.
Table 41Teachers Consciousness to Use Body Language
in English Teaching
OptionSubtotalPercentage
always43.3%
often2016.7%
sometimes4033.3%
never5646.7%
Table 42Teachers Consciousness to Use Body Language in
English Teaching
OptionSubtotalPercentage
always1512.5%
often3125.8%
sometimes5243.4%
never2218.3%
According to the two tables, only 3.3% of the students say that their teachers always emphasize the importance of body language and tell them what body language is. 46.7% of the students say that teachers never say what body language is. Frankly speaking, it is extremely necessary to strengthen this part as it will help the students to learn English better. But there are 25.8% of the students who answer that English teacher often uses the body language in English teaching. 43.4% of the students say that teachers sometimes use the body language in teaching class. At the same time, according to the questions 36, most students answer that teachers seldom have eye contact, gesture, facial expression and posture in classes.
The New English Curriculum Standard for Elementary School has always advocated that English teachers should use English to teach in class in the primary schools as much as possible, and create a good English learning environment for students. However, for primary school students who have just come into contact with English, the English course is a new and unfamiliar field, and their vocabulary is extremely limited. It is impractical to require students to communicate in English completely during the teaching process. When teachers say a bunch of words they cant understand, they will gradually become bored, lose their confidence in English learning, and even lose their curiosity to learn English. When students express their opinion in limited English, they are vulnerable to frustration. Instead, when teachers use the body language to assist teaching, students can guess the teachers intentions based on the teachers gestures, demeanor, etc., and they can quickly understand what the teacher said.
English teaching pays more and more attention to intuitive teaching, so some advanced teaching aids are extensively used. However, in the rural areas, due to the constraints of the conditions, advanced teaching aids cannot be used. Relatively speaking, body language is the best teaching aid. It can be used anywhere and anytime. Teachers can change their expressions, postures and clothing to attract students attention.
4.2Students Attitudes to Teachers Use of Body Language in Class
Table 43Students Attitudes to Teachers Use of Body Language in Class
OptionSubtotalPercentage
positive impacts8066.7%
negative impacts54.2%
no impacts2520.8%
unconcerned108.3%
Among the questions 712, 7 were chosen to make the table in detail, the result is shown in Table 43. It can show students attitudes toward teachers use of body language in class. There are 66. 7% of the students who think that teachers applying the body language in class is very appropriate and useful, and they think that the body language has a positive influence, while only 20.8% of the students think it makes no difference. 42% of the students think that body language has negative impacts. From the questionnaire, 80 students think that the class will be very interesting when teachers have a class with smiling; 70 students say that the rich expressions of teachers can inspire their interest in leaning English; On the contrary, 73 students say if teachers look despondent, the motivation of leaning English will be reduced; 69 students think that an affirmative eye contact from the teacher will multiply their interest in English. 86 students say that body language can promote feelings between teachers and students; In a word, almost all the students hold the opinion that the application of teachers body language in English classes can make a big difference in their English learning interest.
In many students view, they are interested in those teachers who have affluent body language in the English class. As a result, their interest in English is improved. This shows that teachers need to attach importance to the use of body language in English teaching, because body language can inspire students learning interest to enhance their learning efficiency.
4.3The Situation of Teachers Use of Body Language in Different Teaching Steps
In English teaching in primary schools, teachers can use body language to help teach. Through the combination of the use of body language and teaching content, teachers can create a good classroom atmosphere and stimulate students interest in learning. Appropriate use of body language in the classroom improve classroom teaching efficiency. According to questions 1316, the situation of teachers applying body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing in class will be presented. From the table, it can be seen how teachers use the body language in different teaching steps.
Table 44The Situation of Teachers Use of
Body Language in Different Teaching Steps
Option
Itemalwaysoftensometimesnever
Listening1516854
Speaking13504611
Reading1833645
Writing8296716
From the table, it can be seen the frequency of teachers use the body language in different teaching steps. In addition, the body language is used less in listening and writing classes than in speaking and reading classes. In a word, almost half of students say that English teachers use body language frequently in speaking classes. These show English teachers do not take advantage of the body language in different English teaching steps. Most students suggest that teachers should use proper body language in English teaching more frequently.
With the reform of English teaching, more and more English teachers pay more attention to the improvement of the overall quality of students. Therefore, teachers should pay attention to cultivating students ability of listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, because of the limitation of vocabulary, expression ability, and social practice, primary students have problems in their listening and speaking. These limitations make it difficult for students to communicate in English. According to the students current level and actual conditions, body language seems to be necessary. Sometimes the students do not understand a complicated question. But with simple gestures and expressions, students are easy to understand. So teachers need use body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing to inspire students learning interest to enhance their learning efficiency.
5. Tips for Teachers Use of Body Language inDifferent Teaching Steps
The application of the body language can help to inspire the students interest and help them improve the efficiency of learning. So body language is very important in English teaching. However, from the previous survey, it can be found that English teachers have little consciousness of using proper body language in their teaching. There are some suggestions for teachers using body language in different English teaching steps.
(1) Listening plays a pivotal role in English learning. Therefore, teachers often train students listening skills. For example, when listening to a recording and hearing “Its a large room”, since largeis a new word, students do not understand it, and then the teacher can slowly open their arms. At that time, students naturally understand that large means “big”. Without Chinese interpretation, the use of body language can visually assist the English teaching. In this teaching process, if a teacher can use proper body language, the effect will be better. Body language is the auxiliary method of the vocal language. Therefore, in the English classroom teaching, the use of body language should obey the expression needs of the vocal language and serve the content in teaching. Therefore, the use of body language should adhere to the principle of proportionality. The “moderation” means that the movement should be moderate in order not to affect students attention to what the teacher says. When students are listening to the tape, teachers should use body language in the proper time and dont disturb student attention, and when listening to some difficult and new words, teachers should use proper body language to facilitate students listening comprehension, such as gesture, facial expression and posture in that time.
(2) Body language can help the primary students improve the ability to speak. The facial features when talking is also the facial expression. In the textbook of elementary school, there is such an expression “Nice to meet you!”. When learning the expression, if the teacher say hello to the students with a smile and say, “Hello, Im Miss Zhu. Nice to meet you!” and shake hands with the students, the students will understand the meaning of the expression and imitate teachers. Correspondingly, students can remember it well and can use it in real life with body language. The teacher should teach with a smile all the time. Teachers should make students feel easygoing, and avoid frowning. Do not show disappointment to students often. Among them the most effective is smiling, which enhances harmony among people and has the effect of encouragement and support on students. Teachers should improve students emotion to achieve good learning effect with a smile.
(3) Reading is also important for students. The reading here mainly refers to reading aloud for students in the primary schools. Most primary students dont like reading English, let alone reading aloud in the class. Reading aloud can make students master the correct vocal tones. More importantly, reading aloud can give students a sense of language and help the students appreciate the beauty of the language, and the use of teachers body language can help students improve their ability of reading. Primary students are naturally lively and active, and even when they are reading, they cannot last for a long time. For this phenomenon, teachers must make efforts to deal with it. Using body language here is a good idea. For example, when a teacher is teaching the rhyme of “An elephant can walk”, he can imitate many actions of elephant. Many students can not help making similar actions, so that they can not only read well but also they are willing to take the initiative to study. In short, with the support of body language, teachers will find that students increasingly like to read loudly.
Risingfalling tone is the most basic tone in English. When teachers teach words and sentences, they can train students to master these two basic intonations. They may raise their hands for rising tones in questions and lower them for falling tones in statements, or use a degree of clapping to express the stressed word and weak reading in the sentence. In this way, teachers use gestures to guide, students can have correct word pronunciations according to different intonations and distinguish sentences withdifferent meanings. When teachers teach students to read, they should have rich expressions and veracious actions, which will properly guide students to learn. Teachers should strengthen the use of eyes contact and smiles, and they pay attention to moderate body movements and shift positions.
(4) Writing is important in learning language for students. When students are asked to write some words or sentences, they often feel dull and tired. So English teachers should employ proper ways to improve the students interest in writing and make students like to write in English. Teachers can teach students to use body language to write. In most cases when a teacher asks students to write down twentysix letters, many students often forget how to write them. Thus, when teachers teach the students to learn letters, teachers should use gestures to represent uppercase and lowercase letters as much as possible, and sometimes they can also encourage students to use their imagination. Students can imagine how to use gestures to represent letters, in the case, their interest will be stimulated. When teaching writing, teachers can use gestures to write in the air and dictate stroke order. The students also move with the teacher. As a result, students are willing to accept this interesting alphabet learning method and are happy to use it, and the classroom learning atmosphere is very lively.
Teachers gestures should be natural and unmannered. Gestures should vary depending on the different situations, but do not use them too frequently, or make students dazzled. When teachers need not use gestures, both hands should beput naturally on both sides of the body. Teachers should avoid their habitual movements. In addition, it seems to find that teachers take chalk or take textbooks in class, which reduces the chance that the teacher use gestures. Therefore, if the teaching aids are prepared before class, more gestures can be used to strengthen the opportunity to manage class.
In general, students in primary schools are lively and active, and they are liable to imitate the teachers behaviors. If teachers act casually and vulgarly in English class, it will have a bad influence on the primary school students. So teachers should be graceful and appropriate. On the one hand, teachers should use proper body language in teaching according to different circumstances. Proper body language can reflect the teachers temperament and demeanor to strengthen their personal glamour. At the same time, proper body language can help students to learn better. On the other hand, teachers should not use body language excessively. The 45 minutes in class is very important for students, after all body language is only a kind of auxiliary teaching tool. If teachers use too much body language in English class, they may take up too much time and cannot finish their teaching task. Whats worse, too much body language make students only focus on the teachers body language, which will distract students attention from the class and not pay much attention to the knowledge.
6. Conclusion
With the wide use of English, students English level must be improved. At the same time, teachers are required to apply more effective teaching methods to teach in English teaching. English teachers should not only use the traditional teaching methods to convey the knowledge, but also make full use of body language to make their teaching much easier and efficient. In a word, body language plays an important role in English classroom teaching. Although the teaching language can transmit a variety of teaching information, classroom teaching can become dull and bored without the cooperation of bodylanguage. As an English teacher in primary school, body language should be used in class teaching to improve teaching efficiency. Of course, the use of body language should be moderate. Combining body language with sound language organically can not only enhance language strengths, but also improve teaching and learning efficiency in English teaching. It will certainly add vitality to the English class, making English class more vivid and active. In short, a good English teacher should get the utmost out of body language to enhance the students learning efficiency and teaching efficiency.
In this thesis, due to limitations of capabilities and conditions, it is unavoidable that there are some errors in the analysis, and the analysis may be incomplete. In addition, the discussions may be imprecise and exhaustive. The survey will be further explored and studied in the future.
中美商务英语谈判中的跨文化障碍及应对策略
The Crosscultural Obstacles in SinoUS
Business Negotiations and Strategies
to Cope with Them
1. Introduction
With the development of economic globalization, international trade activities become frequent. Especially in the recent years, Chinas rapid economic growth and its access to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the communications become more frequent and have diplomatic exchanges. Crosscultural business negotiations are also playing an important role in the countrys political, economic development and social interactions. China has become one of the major international cooperative partners. Therefore, in order to reach a satisfactory agreement requires effective business negotiation and successful international business activities. SinoUS business negotiation involves people from two different parties who discuss common and conflicting interests to come to an agreement of mutual benefits. There are a variety factors affecting the results of SinoUS business negotiations. However, under the mentioned factors, the negotiators should try to understand the different cultural factors that exist among nations. Considering the cultural differences at all stages of the enterprise is essential to the operation. The greater the cultural differences, the more likely obstacles to communication and misunderstandings become.
People gradually lay stress on the cultural communications. Cultural obstacles exist in many aspects owing to different beliefs, customs, value, life style and so on. Studying the impacts of cultural obstacles contributes to crosscultural communication in various ways. In order to success in SinoUS business negotiations, it is essential to realize the impact of cultural obstacles and find out the coping strategies. Thus, this research on the impacts and cultural obstacles is not only useful and helpful to the SinoUS business negotiations, but also has practical significance to the reality.
2. Literature Review
In order to achieve its objectives, the author believes that it is necessary to provide a detailed and comprehensive overview of what has been done and what to be done in this particular area of research. First of all, this chapter introduces the literature review briefly. Next chapter a detailed review is made about what culture is and negotiation abroad and at home is offered.
Nearly two decades, crosscultural communication and conflict resolution studies of international business fields are booming. The existence of all kinds of conflicts between companies, enterprises, parties and nations becomes more universal (Mitchell, 2000: 12).
Hofstedes cultural dimension theory is the framework of crosscultural communication. It describes the impact of social culture on the values of its members and the relationship between these values and behavior (Greet Hofstede, 1980: 132).
Zhao Weijun (2002) points out that the differences in cultural values deepen the conflict between countries in the negotiation goals and other issues. Therefore, in crosscultural business communication, excellent and skilled negotiator should understand cultural obstacles and make full use of some suitable strategies to gain decisive advantages in business negotiations.
According to Yang Linli (2003), with the continuous development of global economic cooperation and bilateral trade, SinoUS business negotiations play an increasingly important role in ensuring their own interests. Different participants represent different countries. So that different values, thinking modes, languages, manners and customs make the business negotiations more complex and formidable. To remove conflicts and safeguard their own rights and interests, negotiators must realize the cultural differences and recognize the diverse negotiating styles in business negotiations.
Zhuang Jia (2003) thinks that under the overall background of the economic globalization, international business activities have become more and more important. The SinoUS business negotiation not only involves the exchange and cooperation in the economic field, but also involves the cultural conflict. Only when people become more aware of cultural differences and understand the differences of the concept and the thinking modes in different countries, can we reduce the probability of failure in SinoUS business negotiations.
Zhuang Enping (1998) believes that China is already the worlds secondlargest economy especially access to the World Trade Organization (WTO). How to develop better and faster is the most important issue. The development of multilateral trade and trade relations depend on the successful business negotiations of businessmen and countries. In the international business negotiations, negotiation strategy is a kind of technique and plays an essential part in business negotiations.
These studies concerned are useful for the success of SinoUS business negotiations. There are still a lot of deficiencies although they come to a conclusion that some different impacts of cultural differences. Previous studies lack the practicality and specificity. Thus, based on former studies, this paper will do more detailed and concrete researches on the influences of cultural obstacles and the strategies for SinoUS business negotiations.
3. Theoretical Framework of This Study
This chapter mainly introduces the theoretical framework of this study. First it introduces the related introduction to culture, including Hofstedes cultural dimension theory, then the relevant theory of negotiations.
3.1The Introduction to Culture and Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions
Before discussing cultural differences, lets talk first about what culture is. As we all know, culture is dynamic, polydimensional, complicated and universal. In English, there are two normal usages: high culture and anthropological culture. The former focuses on knowledge and artistic merit. One might say that a city has a lot of culture. That is because this city has many art exhibitions, concert performances and public speaking. Or we can talk about a specific period in history, such as the Elizabethan period in England (15581603), as the culmination of British culture, where a large number of musicians and poets still respect their works. In this paper, the author does not care about the former, but the latter.
The anthropological literature includes more than 200 different definitions about culture (Hu Wenzhong, 1991: 30). However, even many definitions provide some common ground. It is widely accepted that culture is neither inherent nor innate. But because all cultural scholars generally believe that culture is communicated and sustained through communication and learning, that is, culture can be learned. It is this common aspect that makes communication between individuals possible. Crosscultural communication is so difficult because the two sides lack common aspects.
Hofstede studied its original model by using factor analysis to examine the findings of the IBMs global employee values survey from 1967 to 1973. It has been improved. The original theory put forward four dimensions that can analyze the cultural value: individualism—collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance and masculinity—feminization. The independent research in Hong Kong makes Hofstede come up with the fifth dimension. In 2010, Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence and selfrestraint.
Power Distance
The power distance is the degree of fairness or unfairness between people in the society. It refers to the acceptance of social power or unequal social power distribution. Here is a big difference in this dimension because of the different understanding of power in different countries.
IndividualismCollectivism
IndividualismCollectivism pays attention to individual or collective. The dimension is to measure whether a society emphasizes the interests of the individual and the collective. People tend to individualism in the society is loose and people more care about themselves and small families. Collectivism tendency pays attention to the inner relations of the group, the big family and the strong ethnic relations that can give them protection.
MasculinityFemininity
The dimension mainly depends on whether the quality of male in the society, such as competitive, more arbitrary or the quality of women, such as modesty and caring for others. And it gives a definition of male and female functions.
Uncertainty Avoidance
The uncertainty avoidance focuses on the degree of intolerance and ambiguity in society. The high uncertainty avoidance more emphasis on authority, status, qualifications, age and try to provide greater occupational safety. They do not accept the extreme views. The low degree of avoidance is more tolerant to the abnormal behavior and opinions.
LongTerm Orientation
Longterm orientation is the degree to which cultural members can accept the satisfaction of their material, emotional and social needs. This dimension shows that there is no religion to prove its legitimacy and that moral life is worth pursuing. Longterm positioning index is closely related to national economic growth.
3.2The Introduction to Negotiation
Samovar (2000) points out that the word “negotiation” comes from the Roman word “negotiari”. This word means to do business activities or to trade. Evidently, the ancient Roman businessmen will refuse “leisure to leisure” until business is solved
3.2.1Concept of Negotiation
Negotiations are dialogues between two or more people or between parties aimed at achieving a favorable outcome for one or more issues, at least one of which has a conflict in these issues (Hu Xuan, 2008: 17). This favorable result can be all parties concerned, or just one or some of them. In many cases, the negotiations are not a zerosum game, allowing cooperation to improve the outcome of the negotiations.
People are negotiating every day and often do not think it as a negotiation. Negotiations occur in organizations, including businesses, nonprofit organizations, between government and government, as well as sales and legal proceedings, as well as personal circumstances such as marriage, divorce, parenting and so on. Business negotiation refers to the cooperation between the parties through consultation and negotiation to promote the economic activities carried out. The international trade often requires a number of consultations and negotiations, in order to clarify the main interests of the parties and the responsibility of cooperation. From many international trade case studies, the success of transnational trade and the operation and the negotiation effect have played a certain role. Many international trade cooperation relations break down due to the failure of the negotiations. The effect of international business negotiations is essential that is a clear partnership, rights and responsibilities, but also to adjust the interests of the parties to the conflict of effective measures.
3.2.2General Negotiation Processes
In fact, the negotiation process was conducted more or less in any form of negotiation, including crosscultural business negotiations. The negotiation process deals with how the negotiations behave over time when the parties interact. In general, the negotiation process can be divided into three periods: the prenegotiation phase (the development of relationships), the facetoface negotiations (information exchange and persuasion) and postnegotiation stages (concessions and agreements).
In the next chapter, the author will distinguish the obstacles in SinoUS business negotiations based on the Hofstedes Culture Dimensions.
4. Obstacles in SinoUS Business Negotiation
Different cultures divide people into groups. The differences in the communities of their constituencies tend to alienate groups of different cultures. Different cultures are also obstacles in communication. Therefore, the negotiators are required to accept each others culture, but also through cultural differences, unambiguously reveal, understand each others purpose and behavior, and make their own accept by each other, and reach a agreement finally. In general, the obstacles in SinoUS business negotiations mainly are listed as follows:
4.1Conflicts Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communications
In the international business negotiations, the main body of the parties is to fight for their own interests and clarify their respective responsibilities. So it needs sufficient communication and evenneed a certain game. Therefore, in the SinoUS business negotiations, language is undoubtedly indispensable and it is the carrier of information. Because the cultural background of SinoUS business activities is different in cultures and values, negotiation language is very easy to be ambiguous. Even the same words or gestures in different cultural backgrounds do not have the same meanings.
4.1.1The Conflicts of Verbal Communications
The impact of cultural obstacles is first reflected in the negotiation communication. Therefore verbal communication is one of the most fundamental ways of international business negotiation. There are some differences in the expressions and communications even if negotiators usually communicate with others by using similar language in the business negotiation. Different languages have significantly restrictive effect on business negotiation. The language character of the United States is frank and direct. But the linguistic expression of China is often indirect and vague.
For example, the Language Style in the United States is rigorous and emphasizes tightness. Its rhetoric is often straightforward in the business negotiations. Relatively, since the Chinese are influenced by the Confucian moderation thought, language expression often like implicit introverted, and its linguistic features naturally seem to be roundabout in business negotiations. In the United States, 13 is a relatively taboo number. People avoid using “13”. Americans do not think they can eat or meet with 13 individuals, even hide 13th floor of the highrise building. In international business negotiation the number “13” is also replaced by proper nouns. “Long dozen” is thirteen and translate into big fight (thirteen) for professional trade in international business. But “13” is more common in China. Because of cultural differences, the language characteristics of different countries are also quite different.
4.1.2The Conflicts of Nonverbal Communications
Cultural differences affect nonverbal communication and nonverbal communication. The use of action language is a huge difference, and negotiators send or receive information in more subtle ways than the language. And negotiators receive representations or signals unconsciously. So when negotiators with different cultural backgrounds send different nonverbal signals, they can easily misinterpret these signals (unaware of the errors). This causes personal friction unknowingly. If we not correct, it will make a big loss. Take shake hands for example, if shake hands with Americans and stare at them, they think you are arrogant and regard it as impolite performance
Gesture, expressions, posture, gesture and eye contact are utilized to present the nonverbal behaviors that probably lead to communication obstacles. The United States is a representative lowcontext country. In this culture, most of the expression is clear and specific language. The American negotiators advocate a clear, direct and frank way to communicate. And China belongs to the highcontext culture. In the high context culture, nonverbal communication plays an important role in the transmission and understanding of information, such as the use of body, eyes, appearance, tone, position, distance, environment nonverbal factors to communicate. To understand the real connotation of the communication, it is necessary to understand the implication of the nonverbal language. For example, in SinoUS negotiation, the Chinese people use silence to express the recognition, or a view about a question, or disagreement with a clause. But it is hard for American who holds a negative attitudetowards silence to accept silence and they regard it as a refusal. Eventually it leads to negotiations fail. Another example of nonverbal behavior is about the understanding of smile. In China, smile can express cheerful feelings as well as embarrassed and anger emotions. It is rare for the Americans to express their mentally unpleasant mood by smiling. Obstacles will emerge frequently in the process of international business negotiations. However, smile sometimes relieves the awkward atmosphere in the process of negotiations. Another example is palm downward waves. It mainly means to greet others in China, while in America it means to ask a dog to come over.
4.2The Obstacles in Personal Values
Differences in values are much deeper and more difficult to overcome than differences in language and nonverbal behavior. Zhao Weijun (2002) insists that Chinese insist on collectivism. Their ideas come from themselves. It is very important to maintain the companys internal harmony and loyalty and always avoid confrontation. Americans from individualistic cultures tend to see themselves as individuals and distinguish them from “others”. For the Americans, they are slightly different in the group and outside the group. Every time in business, they try to improve contact with others but their purpose is not to maintain a good relationship, but to get more values. This impact of different cultural values on international business negotiations is mainly because of equality objectivity and punctuality caused by misunderstandings.
4.2.1Objectivity and Concepts of Equality
According to Hu Xuan (2008), the objectivity in business negotiation reflects “the distinction between people and things”. The Americans have a strong “objectivity” and stress that “separate people from things”. They pay more attention to the substantive issues. Especially in other countries, the idea of “separate people from things” is seen as impossible.
American society has experienced the struggle for equality and freedom in the bourgeois revolution. People are aware of the sense of equality. In business activities, the American aspire egalitarian values. They associate fairness with principles and reasons, which should be profitable either. In a SinoUS business negotiations, When the American negotiators arrive at the Chinese company, the Chinese negotiator do a welcome poster in order to welcome the American representative. But because of negligence, “welcome” write as “welcooe”. The American representative point out the error directly and require the Chinese negotiators to correct. The Chinese negotiators think this behavior show impolite to them while the American negotiators hold that they are equal and should correct error immediately. That is because the Chinese people are deeply influenced by the hierarchical concept and the equal consciousness in business activities is not as good as the United States. The American negotiator offer and put forward the conditions more objective. That is business negotiators are often taken “single win” strategy. They pay attention to economic interests and more consider their own interests. But they are not too concerned about the interests of each other. That is because in developed countries are quite mature. So the American negotiators more take “winwin” strategy, basically considering the actual interests of both sides.
4.2.2Sense of Time
Different cultural backgrounds reflect different ideas of time. Such as America, sense of time is very strong and the time for the Americans is money. As for the Chinese people, their sense of time is weak and in their view the time should be enjoyed. Lou Jingli (2013) believes that the Chinese negotiators use the time words more casual and flexible. Such as “soon” “immediately”, “sometimes”, “for a while”, “wait a moment” and other inaccurate words. But the Americans often do not understand the meaning. They even think Chinese people do not have the sincerity of business cooperation. Due to the different concept of time, it results in different negotiators of the negotiating style and negotiation in different ways. The Americas concept is linear time. They have a strong sense and they like speed and efficiency that would contribute to vigorous business. The Chinese view of time is repeated. They reach agreement by repeating the importance again and again. The Chinese analyze issues and measures in terms of longterm vision and comprehensive approach finally to make conclusions.
4.3The obstacles in Thinking Modes
Thinking modes as one kind of longterm cultural accumulation, it influences peoples social life, life style and social communication. The American have a shortterm orientation and they pay more attention to have shortterm objectives, make decisions quickly and have results rapidly. But the Chinese have a longterm orientation and a high degree of uncertainty, which they tend to decrease potential conflicts and find out solution to deal with problems. That is because they are influenced by the Confucian meaning and the concept of harmony. Therefore, the differences in thinking modes are often playing a vital role in the success of negations.
Greek philosopher Socrates insists that “time is a kind of god”. Cultural differences in time are significant, which lead to different time orientations indicating different patterns of thinking. Samovar (2000) demonstrates the importance of past events and convince of the importance of past events. What has happened and what has established in the history were extremely vital to these cultures. And they think that decisionmaking was guided by the past and the truth.
Such as Chinese and American culture, both show their own characteristics in the way of thinking. From the perspective of holistic thinking and decentralized thinking, Chinese culture advocates Confucianism advocated by “Heaven and Man” of the overall cosmology. “Heaven and man” means heaven and earth interlinked, emphasizing the harmony between man and nature. They consider them as a whole rather than decomposing the whole into parts and analyzing them one by one. They emphasize the harmony of things and the unity of opposites. Therefore, they promote “we will be success if we know each other well” to avoid the “overgeneralization” and “from point to area”. Tylor (1998) states that the American will regard the living environment as external. Therefore, the Americans pay attention to the detailed analysis of things and rigorous reasoning argument through the phenomenon of the nature of things. So their thinking is decentralized. This difference in thinking is also reflected in the differences in SinoUS negotiating habits.
For example, Chinese negotiators like to negotiate big issues and then talk about the details of the problem. And the American businessmen think that the details of the problem are fundamental. They hold that details of the problem are clear and the problem will be solved. The final agreement is toresolve a series of details. Each problem has concessions and commitments. However, the Chinese businessmen are focused on the issues as a whole and do the overall discussion. Usually at the end of the negotiations, if they want to reach agreements and sign contracts, they should make concessions and be patient. Such friction often produces obstacles in the negotiations between China and America.
4.4The Obstacles in Manners and Customs
Different social and ethnic groups own diverse customs and habits that lie in all aspects of their lives. Business negotiations are often related to some formal or informal consultation and communication activities such as banquets, seminars and so on. In a variety of social activities, customs play a significant role. In terms of the Chinese and American table culture, there are many differences. Whether it is the habit of using tableware or eating habits or table etiquette are different. So in the case of differences in customs and manners, for business negotiations it causes the impact of incalculable. Small cultural obstacles lead to unsuccessful communication. Therefore, in the negotiation process if the parties to the negotiations do not understand each others customs or manners, then they may have a feeling of disrespect.
A typical case is that an American businessman lost a profitable business opportunity because he turned down the amicable invitation to a cup of tea. Chinese holds a view that rejection is a kind of insult to the inviter. In order to obtain negotiators trust, it is relatively easy for them to strike a deal only when they establish a friend relationship and do not care about wasteful time of a negotiation.
Another distinct difference is about the understanding of a variety of colors. Chinese people are often willing to dress red clothes in the important occasions because red represents joy, happiness and good fortune. While in Americans opinion, red is a symbol of gloom, dark and bad luck. So the American would dress white clothes. These obstacles can be seen everywhere especially in the field of business activities.
5. Effective Strategies for Smooth Negotiation
In order to fight for a variety of equity optimization program so as to achieve mutual recognition and intended to comply with the contract, business negotiations need a lot of skills support. However, in the process of negotiation, in addition to taking the skills to obtain the comparative advantage of the game, the solution to crosscultural negotiation is the business negotiators should first consider and solve the problem. Because only to solve such problems, negotiations could process smoothly, and this is to avoid the negotiations break down. Therefore, both parties should take reasonable measures to solve cultural obstacles in the business negotiations to achieve the best results.
Zhao Fang (2013) deems that business negotiation strategy is the general term for all kinds of methods, measures, techniques, tactics and means adopted by negotiators in the course of business negotiations to achieve specific negotiation objectives. In the whole process of business negotiations, the two sides should be based on their own strength from the overall situation of the negotiations and plan arrangements for the entire negotiation team to be prepared.
5.1To Use Business Language Accurately
The language of any country is constrained and influenced by its culture. Language is the carrier of culture. Cultural influence and form language. In the process of business negotiation, the use of business negotiation language is directly related to the success or failure of the whole negotiation. Therefore, the negotiators should be able to use the business language and other language strategies, such as courtesy, euphemism, subtle expressions, humor and praise for different negotiating opponents. They should strive to express their thoughts and wishes in an accurate and appropriate language to avoid obstacles and misunderstandings between the different parties.
For example, in the business negotiations, the Chinese delegates are very proud of introducing their own business: “Our company is a secondclass enterprise.” The original enthusiasm of the atmosphere suddenly becomes cold, and short embarrassment occurs. Because the Chinese side of the speech caused ambiguity. The other side misunderstands “secondclass enterprise” as “secondrate enterprises” rather than the Chinese would like to express the “subordinate enterprises”. So the negotiator must have a high command of language so that they can express their own meanings accurately, otherwise it may lead to verbal communication obstacles.
In addition to the ambiguity caused by language expressions, there is a very important reason that the nonverbal behaviors (body language) differ. For example, in China if a person thumbs up to other, this means appreciation and praise. But if it is to negotiate with the American, it may lead to negotiationsimpasse and even break. That is because in the United States, this gesture means to ask for a ride or pray for good luck. Another example is “fist”, in the United States means good luck, but in China swear an oath.
So that only correct identification and understanding of the national language and nonlanguage differences, fully understand their various business negotiations in the habitual language and nonverbal communication, its possible to avoid “judge others by oneself”. So that truly avoids all kinds of language and nonverbal communication obstacles.
5.2To Understand and Respect the Different Values
Values refer to the general evaluation and general view of the meaning and importance of a persons objective things (including people and things) around them. Different countries and different cultural backgrounds cultivate different values. Different values will make people solve the problem different. Therefore, in business negotiations, we must fully understand the different values under different cultural backgrounds and seek common ground to strive to build a winwin negotiation strategy.
There is a real case. A Chinese company negotiates with an American company, intending to buy some machinery and equipment. Chinas negotiators are late for 45 minutes for some reasons when they arrive at the negotiating destination. The American negotiators express their strong dissatisfaction and accuse the Chinese negotiators of sense of time. The Chinese delegates have to apologize for it and the whole negotiations have been in a passive state from the very beginning. The Chinese delegates cannot consider calmly for many requests and sign in a hurry. When their minds calm down, Chinese delegates find out that they have a big loss. Why is it? The reason is that the Chinese negotiators are not enoughunderstanding the American values and not pay enough attention to it. For the Americans, time is money. A waste of time is a waste of money. The Americans cannot tolerate and accept any of their ideas. As a result such an error causes the entire negotiations in a passive state and makes concessions until the final contract.
In short, we should fully understand and respect each others values on the basis of the two sides of the values of cultural integration. Only in this way can we solve this crosscultural conflict in business negotiations and create a good atmosphere for the smooth negotiation. Negotiators should integrate the two sides of the values and seek common ground while reserving differences. And on basis of building innovative negotiation model and develop negotiation strategies and rules.
5.3To Acknowledge and Respect Different Thinking Modes
Thinking is the driving force of the negotiations. All the business negotiation process is the negotiation process of thinking the whole process. To a certain extent it determines the negotiators language and style. The negotiators thinking modes are different according to the different countries, cultural backgrounds and values. This requires us that in the negotiation process we must understand and respect the differences in thinking. Try to seek common grounds while reserving differences to establish a crosscultural awareness of the negotiations.
The next example illustrates this point. A wellknown company negotiates with a American company in order to open overseas market. The Chinese negotiators suggest that they want to visit the city tomorrow and delay negotiation but the American negotiators remind the negotiations should be held as scheduled. In the negotiation process, the American contract is very detailed but the companys financial situation and its location in the contract is not clear. The negotiators make it clear that it is not necessary and the Chinese negotiators want to add a flexible additional agreement to ensure these uncertainties. But the American negotiators make concessions and finally sign a stage contract. The reason for this conflict is due to differences in the thinking modes. Concept of time in America is very strong and the Chinese people are relatively flexible. The American is more concerned about the contract for each specific detail. But the Chinese peoples thinking mode is the overall type. They are more inclined to reach the basic principles and the general direction of unity, and then talk about specific detail.
In short, in the business negotiations we must first understand the differences in thinking mode. Try to avoid using your own thinking modes to measure the thoughts of others. Secondly, respect and accept different negotiating style because of the differences in thinking. Try to understand the others way of thinking and get each others information as much as possible. Only in this way can we cross this cultural obstaclethe differences in thinking, and ultimately reach consensus and cooperation.
5.4To Be WellPrepared for the Negotiation
The success of business negotiations lies in an abundant preparation of previous stages. Under the normal situation, the more you are fully prepared before the negotiations, the better the negotiations you may have. Due to a variety of impacts on different crosscultural factors, preparatory work is important and complex in the business negotiations. Negotiators should dynamically understand the differentnational habits, negotiation means, languages, cultures and so on. American negotiators tend to make a preparation with technology and efficiency. And Chinese businessmen often pay more attention to the preparations before the negotiations. If they sit at the negotiating table, it shows that they have some acquaintances about the competitors and make full preparations for the business negotiation.
In the early stages of the business negotiations, negotiators should first collect relevant information, and then listen to other peoples utterance to get more information in the negotiations. Based on a large amount of information, negotiators can be targeted to develop their own negotiation strategies. The negotiators are bound to introduce workrelated staff to each other before the official business negotiations start. The convention of introducing others is to recommend the highstatus people and older people in China. Americans are just the opposite. They get used to introducing the lowstatus people and young people to other negotiators. As is known to all, Americans advocate freedom, liberation and democracy; while Chinese people stress morality, harmony and conservation in the business negotiation. As long as the negotiators understand these cultural differences before the beginning of the negotiations, they will harvest a success in the negotiations. In the SinoUS business negotiations, if only negotiators can understand fully, they would get more helpful information, which helps them to confirm the goals for the later negotiation.
5.5To Establish the Awareness of CrossCultural Communications
Truthfully speaking, in recent years, the advancement of world economic globalization and the rapid development of the Internet strengthen the business negotiation among different countries. But there are still many negotiators who underestimate the impact of cultural differences on business negotiations and lack of awareness of cultural differences. International business negotiators often consciously or unconsciously use their own standards to judge and explain other nations cultures. Which may mislead the negotiators to make the wrong decision?
Negotiators must build the crosscultural awareness in the international business negotiations. It is pretty necessary for the two parties to enhance the awareness of intercultural negotiation in order to facilitate the communications. First of all, negotiators need to acquaint themselves with some concrete requirements and motivations of a negotiation in different cultural backgrounds. Next, negotiators should tackle the problems from the perspective of others and understand other peoples logic way of thinking. Also they have to accept and respect each others cultural differences. Finally, the negotiators know how to be flexible and changeable so that their negotiating skills can be applied to different types of business negotiations. In conclusion, under the correct guidance of the sense of international negotiation, the negotiators can grasp the appropriate negotiating strategies and expand business cooperation with different business partners.
6. Conclusion
Business negotiation is a series of complex crosscultural activities. People in different countries have different habits, languages, values, manners, customs and thinking modes. These are key factors to determine whether the business negotiations will success or not. All in all, with the advancement in economic globalization, SinoUS business negotiations are becoming more and more frequent. Bylearning business negotiations and practical cases, we can easily find out those crosscultural obstacles to come to an agreement. Cultural obstacles in SinoUS business negotiations are: conflicts between verbal and nonverbal communications, the obstacles in personal values, the obstacles in thinking modes and the obstacles in manners and customs. On the one hand, the Americans emphasize individualism in international business negotiations. But Chinese people hold collectivism. On the other hand, the Chinese people are pursuing harmony and consolidation. American people think highly of effectiveness and cooperation in the business negotiation.
Cultural differences have a great influence on international business negotiations. Specifically, different cultures not only affect the way of negotiations and the style of negotiations, but also affect the decision and the organization of negotiation. Based on the abovementioned effects of cultural obstacles, negotiators should understand some of the necessary negotiation skills and explore practical strategies in international business negotiations. First of all, in order to facilitate the smooth progress of negotiations and come to an agreement, they should use business language accurately. Negotiators need to recognize and accept cultural differences in a broad sense.They should understand and respect the different values and different thinking modes. The negotiators must be well prepared at the beginning of the business negotiations. They should learn to adopt and listen to other competitors utterances and advises for collecting useful information in the business negotiation. Last, the negotiators have the ability to master many negotiation skills such as concise expression and euphemistic rejection so that they can overcome communication obstacles to gain the successful business negotiation and achieve mutually beneficial winwin results.
中英请求语的语用分析
The Pragmatic Study of the Chinese
and English Request Language
1. Introduction
Speech Act Theory, which is a significant theory in pragmatic research, focuses on the study of the realizations of speech acts. Request, as a common speech act, has attracted many researchers at home and abroad to study it, because in peoples communication process, they always need to use the request language. It refers to the language behavior that ask or beg some people to do something, which belongs to the directive illocution. The modern society proposes civilization and politeness, so using the request language correctly is a concrete method to conduct the politeness language. It can not only reflect a humans nurture and a civilization degree of the society, but also facilitate successful communication. Therefore, with the frequent international communication, it is necessary to discuss and research the request language in order to decrease the languageusing mistakes and make the communication develop smoothly. For obtaining the purpose, a study about the request language is made. Through the pragmatic study of the request language, the thesis provides a direction for people from English countries and China to communicate with each other.
The primary aim of the study is to look for the similarities and differences of request languages in English and Chinese by a questionnaire. The second aim is to look for the related factors which result in the similarities and differences found by the research. Till now, lots of foreign and domestic scholars have made researches about request language. However most made researches from the crosscultural perspective. Just a small percentage of them made researches from the pragmatic perspective that can not be ignored and is very important for communication. This study focus on the features of the two languages in the view of syntactic and semantic aspects.
This thesis includes five parts. The first part illustrates some background information about request language, the aim of the research and an integral introduction of the paper. In the second part, the related literature at home and abroad would be given to support the thesis. In the third part, the paper gives an analysis of the questionnaire of the request language applied in this paper and also introduce the questionnaire design, subjects groups and data collection procedure concretely. In the fourth part, the paper would make data discussion about the questionnaire and the pragmatic comparison of the Chinese and English request language. The part of five is a conclusion. These are the main content and structure of this paper.
2. Literature Review
The request language is studied extensively in recent years. Many scholars at home and abroad spend years on studying the request language.
2.1Study Abroad
The request language is a vital component of language. The study of the request language can dates back to the late 1960s. Request language is used to accomplish the speech act of request, so it can bestudied from the speech act theory which is derived from the philosopher Austin (1962). The basic proposition can be summed up in one sentence: “To speak is to do something.” (Austin, 1962: 24) The speaker only speaks meaningful and comprehensible words for the listener. In 1969, Searle developed Austin theory to explain the human language communication and stated that the request language is one kind of directives. At the same time he put forward indirect speech act theory and directive speech act. The speakers use some words to ask the listeners to do something. “Request” is actually a specific statement.
Later, great advances were made in the development of rules concerning the request language. In 1967, Professor Grice in American Berkeley University concluded the disciplines of peoples communication behaviors systematically. He did a speech called “Logic and Conversation” in the Harvard University. He talked the concrete concept of the cooperative principle and the producing of the conversational implication. He proposed the principle of cooperation, but it is difficult to explain some conversations by this theory. Therefore, in order to explain the indirectness of communication between the two sides of the communication which can not be explained by the principle of cooperation, Leech put forward the principles of politeness in 1983. Leechs politeness principle points to this phenomenon that the ultimate goal of the speech is to implement the request act, so that the speaker choose the indirect but polite way to express his request. Two principles, Tact Maxim and Generosity Maxim, are related to request language. They are two aspects of one thing: (1) Tact Maxim, 1)To minimize cost to other; 2)To maximize benefit to other. (2) Generosity Maxim, 1) To minimize benefit to self; 2) To maximize cost to self. (Ling Laifang,2003: 1426) The Tact Maxim is about how to treat others and it is true of the request language which order somebody to do something; the Generosity Maxim is bout how to treat oneself and it is true of the request language which promise to help other people.
In 1978, Brown and Levinson pointed out that the request is actually a threat face threatening acts. On the one hand, the speaker speaks the request also to some extent interfere with the freedom of the people, and even threaten the face of the people; on the other hand, if their request is rejected, they will be hurt. And taking other social factors into account, the speaker takes the appropriate politeness strategy, so the threat for both sides is minimal.
In 1989, Blum Kulka in the CrossCultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) pointed out the two most important factors in the way of speech act are social distance and relative power. Taking age, gender, intimacy and other factors into consider. BlumKulka and other scholars according to the degree of the request divided request strategies into three major categories, a total of 9 subcategories. First, direct strategies, includes 5 subclasses: (1) moodderivable; (2) performatives; (3) hedged performatives; (4) obligation statements; (5) want statements. Second, conventionally indirect strategies, includes 2 subcategories: (1) suggestory formula; (2) preparatory. Three, nonconventionally indirect strategies, includes 2 subclasses: (1) strong hints; (2) mild hints. As BlumKulka points out, request language strategies can be classified as follows:
Table 21Classifications of Request Strategies (by BlumKulka et al 1989)
Levels of
directnessStrategiesExamples
direct1. moodderivable
2. performatives
3. hedged performatives
4. obligation statements
5. want statementsYou shut up.
I am telling you to shut up.
I would like to ask you to shut up.
You must/have to shut up.
I would like you to shut up.
conventionally indirect6. suggestory formula
7. preparatoryLets play a game.
Can you draw a horse for me?
nonconventionally indirect (Hints)8. strong hint
9. mild hintThis game is boring
Weve been playing this game for over an hour now.
2.2Study at Home
In, 1997, Zhang Shaojie and Wang Xiaotong make a contrastive study on English and Chinese request language. They used the questionnaire survey to collect the data by using the Discourse Completion Test (DCT), and found that the Conventionally indirect strategy is the strategy that mostly used in Chinese request language strategy. Yao Shunxia and Qiu Tianhe, did a study of request language from cross culture and analyzed the similarities and differences in the types of request language strategies in English according to the results of the survey results in 2003. Based on the division of the request language strategy in CCSARP, their paper also analyzed the implementation of request language in Chinese, and found that the indirect request strategy in Chinese does not apply to the conventionally indirect strategy proposed in CCSARP. On the basis of predecessors research, in 2011, Yuan Kunyang and Li Boling carried out an empirical investigation from the two groups of subjects with native English and Chinese from the aspects of syntax, discourse and the choice of the type of the request strategy, and analyzed the similarities and differences between the two languages in the request strategies. The study found that the frequency of the usage of indirect strategies in Chinese speech has a dominant position. They argued that the most practical significance of CCSARP s research on request language is DCT and the data analysis framework still has important implications for crosscultural research. This paper agrees this view and will take DCT to collect data.
3. Research Methodology
In this part, the paper introduces the research methodology including the questionnaire design, subjects groups and the data collection procedure.
3.1Questionnaire Design
In 1989, BlumKulka implemented an international cooperation study project—The Cross Culture Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP). The research method is the discourse completion test (DCT). The target is to research the difference of the request language in different language culture. The investigation in this paper is also based on the DCT. The subjects can write answers based on the practical life in order to reflect the truthful practice on this question. For ensuring the effectivity of the investigation, the questionnaire involves different kinds of social relationships in the practical communications, and ten communicative situations in which the participants are. The social relationships are between the superior and subordinate, among the families, classmates, friends andstrangers. This requires that the subjects propose the corresponding request language to answer in different identities in different situations. The ten questions that the questionnaire involves are designed from four aspects, including school, family, society and work. And they can be divided into four groups. And Group 1 about school aspect includes Qustion 1 and Question 2. Group 2 about family aspect includes Question 3, Question 4 and Question 5. Group 3 about society aspect includes Question 6, Question 7 and Question 8. Group 4 about work aspect includes Question 9 and Question 10. The reason for this design is because it can reflect the answers with the most comprehensive views.
3.2Subject Groups
The subject groups of this research are the young women between 20 to 25 years old from Britain and Chinese. The number of the persons in the subject group is 40. They are divided into two groups. Group one includes 30 persons, whose native language is Chinese. The other group includes 10 persons, whose native language is English. To increase the credibility of the investigation, these subjects are chosen with caution. The two groups both receive the basic education and their educational degree is similar. These persons are also involved in different social relationships including the relationships between the superior and subordinate, among the families, classmates, friends and strangers. In this way, the subjects should propose corresponding request language to answer in different identities in different conditions.
3.3Data Collection Procedure
The questionnaire makes use of the app called “Questionnaire Star” to collect the materials. The questions are written on the app, and then the link of the questionnaire is sent by some social communication softwares such as QQ, WeChat and microblog to the subjects and they are asked to fill the questionnaires. After all the questionnaires are filled up, the collected statistics will be arranged and analyzed.
The appendix is a questionnaire about the request language. First, a question is proposed that “Li Ming and Wang Hong are classmates. Li wants Wang to teach him a mathematics problem. If you were Li, what would you say?” Then this question is sent as a link to different people from different countries. These people who receive the message are the subjects in this research, namely speakers from Britain and China. Then the records are made about the sending back messages from different persons. The answers are presented in excel, which is clear for people to see the using habits of the request language from different countries. The excel records the time of people to answer the question, the time they used to answer these questions, the place source of the message and the answers content. The data is presented in excel, which is easy and clear for the readers to see.
4. Data Analysis and Discussion
Altogether 30 questionnaires in Chinese and 10 questionnaires in English have been collected and this part will analyze these questions and answers.
4.1Data Analysis
This part is going to present the concrete data analysis from the questionnaire in view of three aspects including syntax, discourse and the request language strategy.
4.1.1Syntactic Contrast
There are three moods on the application of the sentences in all the language, including the declaratives, imperatives and interrogatives (Bicester, 1999: 65). The following will talk about the contrast between the Chinese and English in usingimperatives, interrogatives and declaratives.
Table 41Frequency of Request Moods Used in English and Chinese
Mood
LanguageImperativesInterrogativesDeclaratives
English5%90%5%
Chinese20%75%5%
From Table 41, it can be seen that both English and Chinese request language have three sentence structures: imperatives, interrogatives and declaratives. This indicates that these sentence structures are universal. Obviously, interrogatives take up the biggest proportion for both English and Chinese request language at 90% and 75% severally among the three sentence structures. By contrast, declaratives accounts for the least at 5% both in Chinese and English request language. And the percentages of imperatives in English and Chinese constitute 5% and 20% respectively.
4.1.2Discoursal Contrast
The completion of the request language generally goes through three basic steps: (1) the address, whose function is to attract the listeners attention; (2) the supportive move, whose functions is to persuade the others to answer the speakers request; (3) the head act, whose function is to mark the end of the request behaviors. The request language should be completed by the three steps. But it is not to say the all the request languages have the three steps. The following table is going to present the different usage of address, supportive move and head act based on the presentation of the questionnaire.
Table 42Frequency of Request Steps Used by English and Chinese
Step
LanguageAddressSupportive MoveHead Act
English20%60%100%
Chinese90%80%100%
From Table 42, it is easily seen that both English and Chinese request language go through three basic steps: address, supportive move and head act. This indicates that the sequence is normal. The addresses in English and Chinese request language have a big gap that constitute 20% and 90% severally; whereas the figures of supportive move are approximate in English and Chinese request language that constitute 60% and 80% separately, which could show that address and supportive move are optional components and they maybe exist or not exist. The head act in English and Chinese request language is both 100% and it manifests that the head act is an essential component and must exist. It can be concluded that completing the request language does not have to undergo every step.
4.1.3Contrast in Choosing the Request Language Strategy
Based on Blum Kulkas research, the request language strategies can be divided into three categories: direct request strategies, conventionally indirect strategies and nonconventionally indirectstrategies. For the questionnaire of this paper, the answers of these questions can also be analyzed from four aspects.
The first one is about the school aspect including Question 1 and Question 2. The situation in Question 1 is that a student wants his classmate to teach him a mathematical problem. And the situation in Question 2 is that a student wants his teacher to change his seat. In the application of the request language in the school, most students and teachers like to use more polite request language to express their politeness to their teachers or classmates. In Chinese, the answers using the direct request strategy and conventionally indirect strategy account for the similar proportion at 50% and 45% respectively. And the detailed figures are mood derivable 10%, performatives 10%, hedged performatives 10%, want statements 10%, obligation statements 10%, suggestory formula 10% and preparatory 35%. Nonconventonally indirect request language strategy constitutes including strong hints 5% and mild hints of nonconventionally indirect is not used. In English, the answers cover conventionally indirect strategy at the biggest proportion about suggestory formula 15% and preparatory 60%. However, direct strategy does not have so many and includes performatives 5%, hedged performatives 10% and want statements 10% and no one use conventionally indirect strategy. This can be seen from the following chart.
Table 43Choice of Request Strategy Types in the School Aspect
Type
LanguageDirect StrategyConventionally
Indirect StrategyNonconventionally
Indirect Strategy
Chinese50%45%5%
English25%75%0%
The second one is that the family aspect including Question 3, Question 4, and Question 5. The situation in Question 3 is that a mother wants his daughter to spend more time on studying. The situation in Question 4 is that a wife wants her husband to turn on the TV. The situation in Question 5 is that a girl wants her sister to lend her new skirt. In these three situations, Chinese all use the direct language strategy which concluding mood derivable constitute 80%, performatives 15%, hedged performatives 2% and want statements 2% and obligation statements 1%, and no one uses others. However the conventionally indirect strategy can be seen mostly in English and the answers using performatives 26%, hedged performatives 2% and want statements 1%, obligation statements 1%, preparatory 70% and no one uses others. This contrast is clearly seen from the following chart.
Table 44Choice of Request Strategy Types in the Family Aspect
Type
LanguageDirect StrategyConventionally
Indirect StrategyNonconventionally
Indirect Strategy
Chinese100%0%0%
English30%70%0%
The third one is about the work aspect including Question 6, Question 7, and Question 8. This mainly means that peoples relationships are related to colleagues or boss. The situation in Question 6 is that a man wants to ask for a day off. The situation in question 7 is that a manager wants his assistant to bring a contract. The situation in Question 8 is that a woman wants her college to help make a cup of coffee for her. In these cases, most people choose to use more indirect language regardless of his nation. In Chinese, the answers using want statements account for 17%, obligation statements 5%, suggestory formula7%, preparatory 70%, strong hint 1% and no one uses others. In English, the answers using hedged performatives account for 10%, want statements 15%, obligation statements 1%, suggestory formula3%, preparatory 71%, and no one uses others. Most people both in Chinese and English are used to choosing preparatory of conventionally indirect strategy.
Table 45Choice of Request Strategy Types in the Work Aspect
Type
LanguageDirect StrategyConventionally
Indirect StrategyNonconventionally
Indirect Strategy
Chinese22%77%1%
English26%74%0%
The fourth one is about the society aspect including Question 9 and Question 10. The situation in Question 9 is that a girl wants the passer to help fix her bicycle. The situation in Question 10 is that a man wants to call the police. In these situations, most people choose to use more indirect request language. Most of Chinese use direct strategy and conventionally indirect strategy at similar figure about 55% and 45% severally, while British use conventionally indirect strategy at the biggest proportion 90%. In Chinese, the answers using want statements constitute 45%, obligation statements 10%, suggestory formula 15%, preparatory 30% and no one uses others. In English, the answers using suggestory formula constitute 10%, preparatory 80%, strong hints 10% and no one uses others.
Table 46Choice of Request Strategy Types in the Society Aspect
Type
LanguageDirect StrategyConventionally
Indirect StrategyNonconventionally
Indirect Strategy
Chinese55%45%0%
English0%90%10%
4.2Discussion
Based on the collected data above, this part discuss the differences of English and Chinese request language in view of syntactic structure, discoursal structure and the choice of request strategy. And it can be seen that Chinese and English people show differences in using request language.
4.2.1Differences in the Syntax
The three sentence structures in the request language have some differences. This part will discuss these differences. The first one is about the imperatives. The imperatives are seen as inappropriate and impolite if people use it to make request in some situations. For example, in Question 5, one Chinese answers “借我穿一下你的裙子”. The command tone exists in this sentence. This sentence places much pressure on the listeners. If the listeners listen to this sentence, they will feel the speaker is rude and impolite. This is the same as some answers in Question 4. In Question 4, one Chinese answers “去把电视开了” and another Chinese answers “老公，把电视开一下”. But in English, the imperatives do not exist in these questions. They prefer to express the same meaning with the sentences: in Question 5, one British answers “Would you mind lending me your skirt” and in Question 4, one British answers “Can you turn on the TV”. On the contrary, Chinese prefer the imperative sentences. However, in the situation between superior and subordinate, both Chinese and British use the imperatives. In Question 7, when the boss asks his assistant to bring the contract, one Chinese answers “小××, 把会议室的合同拿过来”, and another Chinese answers “去把落在会议室的合同拿回来”. And in English, one people answers “Bring me the contract please” and another people answers “Please bring the contract in the meeting room”. From these, the differences between Chinese and English request language are clear. In Chinese, imperatives are often used in the daily dialogues. They are more applied among family members and friends, but less among strangers. In addition, Chinese are more likely to use the word “把”. While in English, people would rather use imperatives when he is a boss and they always use the word “please”.
The second one is about the interrogatives. It is the most commonly used for making requests in both Chinese and English request language from the Table 41. For example, in Question 1, one British answers “Can you tell me the answer for this question”, which is a relatively indirect way. Another British answers “Excuse me Wang, can you help me with these mathematical problems”. This one also uses the interrogatives to show its request. The interrogatives is also one of the ways to use the request languages. It can make people sound polite and honorable. This is also applied in another Britishs answer. His answer is “Would you mind making a cup of coffee for me” in Question 8. In Chinese, one people answers “你可以教我这道数学题吗?我不太会” and another answers “王红，你也在做这套题啊，刚好我有一道题思路不清楚，你能给我讲讲嘛？”in Question 1. And one Chinese answers “小美，你要去泡咖啡吗?可不可以帮我也泡一杯啊，我这个表格还没有填完，正好提提神，等下班请你吃好吃的”. The different answers of different people from different countries can express the language habits of their countries. British prefer the simpler way and the Chinese prefer the indirect way. These are related to the culture of the different countries. People in Chinese and English use the interrogatives in the request language to answer the questions. From these answers, people can get this conclusion. British prefer the direct way to say their demand when they use interrogatives. The subjects answers the questions directly without mentioning the related language about the reason why he needs others to help him. Chinese people are more likely to have an indirect answer when they use interrogatives, as they answer in Question 1 “王红，我不太会这道题，你可以教我一下吗”. The subject gives the reason firstly why he needs the other person to teach him and then he proposes what he needs help “Can you teach me”.
The third one is about the declaratives. It mainly concers two types of request strategy: need statements and hints (Ding Hengqi & Zhang Jing, 2003:67). The hints are polite for the request language, because the hints are indirect. In Question 5, one Chinese answers “姐姐，你的裙子好漂亮” and one British answers “Your skirt is so beautiful”. For these cases, the listeners needs to know that the speaker wants to wear her skirt. This type is easy to make people misunderstand because its meaning is so ambiguous. The need statements are direct because the speakers intention is expressed. Both Chinese and British like the application of need statements because it is obvious to perform their requests. In Question 10, one Chinese answers “是110吗，我家被盗了，我家在××” and one British answers “Id like to report a burglary”. From these, the conclusion is easily made that the usage of Chinese and English request language is similar.
4.2.2Differences in the Discourse
Address, supportive move and head act are the main components in a sentence. In reality, address and supportive move do not exist in all the sentences, but head act must exist. This part will discuss the differences from address and supportive move.
Address is not necessary in a sentence. Address can be also called address. Chinese use more addresses than British mainly because the two nations have different address systems. Chinese address system is more complicated than Britain. For example, in Question 3, one Chinese answers “李华，你已经在手机上浪费太多时间了，多花点时间学习吧”. In Question 5, one Chinese answers “姐姐，你的裙子好漂亮，我可以穿吗”. In Question 7, one Chinese answers “小××, 去把会议室的合同拿过来”. In Question 9, one Chinese answers “大叔，我的车链子掉了，您能帮我修一下吗”. These are some name addresses, like “李华”, “姐姐”, “小××”, “大叔”， in these sentences. But in English, there are not so many addresses. In Question 1, one British answers “Hi Wang, I dont understand this math problem. Can you please teach it to me”. In Question 3, one British answers “Li, I think you spend too much time on your phone. You should spend more time doing homework”. In other questions, the address nearly can not be seen. It can be seen that Chinese use more addresses than British. Chinese are used to using kinds of addresses among different relationships to make speakers sound friendly with the listeners. But in English, the addresses mostly occur when the speaker knows the listeners name especially when the relationship is close between the speaker and the listener.
Supportive move is also not necessary in a sentence. And the position of it is casual. In the Chinese discourse structure, the content of reasons, conditions and concession is usually put in front of the topics. The key concept is put behind. The speakers asking is in the front, which will build a conditional structure for its request. It can be found in the questionnaire. In Question 5, one Chinese answers “姐姐，你的裙子是什么时候买的，好好看呀，借我穿穿吧” and another Chinese answers “老板，我儿子生病了，我想请假一天照顾他”. The order of these sentences are the presequence. But in English, people are willing to use the aftersequence in the request language. They prefer to talk the main concept firstly. The western people think people who ask for request indirectly are not very efficient. In Question 1, one British answers “Are you OK to teach me this math problem”. In Question 2, one British answers “Can I please move to a different seat? My classmate is interfering with my studying”. In Chinese request language, the request words are put at the end of the sentence, and the sentences that propose the request are put in the front. But in English, people can see that the request words are put in the front, and the other sentences are put in the latter part. This is the expression of the presequence and aftersequence of the request language in the sentence between the two countries.
4.2.3Differences in Choosing the Request Language Strategy
The main types of the request language strategy are direct strategies, conventionally indirect strategies and nonconventionally indirect strategies (hints). The choice of request language strategy in different situations between Chinese and English are different. From what has been concluded in 4.1.3, the differences are clear.
In the school aspect, the conventionally indirect strategies in the English can account for 75%. Thus, the indirect strategies are the most commonly used in the school aspect. But in Chinese, the situations are different. The direct request strategy is the most commonly used as well as the conventionally indirect request strategy, which account for 50% an 45% separately. The nonconventionally indirect strategies (hints) both in Chinese and in English are used least.
In the family aspect, the direct strategies in Chinese and conventionally indirect strategies in English are used mostly. And no one uses the nonconventionally indirect strategies (hints) both in Chinese and in English. In the English culture, the indirect request strategy is thought to be without the meaning of pushing the listeners, but nonconventionally indirect strategy is too obscure. So they think the conventionally strategy is most polite, which can leave enough space for the listeners. In the situations of family members and relatives, this strategy is mostly applied. This strategy show the speakers respect for the listeners personal freedom and the dignity. But in Chinese, they think the family relationship is the closest. They do not need to be polite to each other because they are too close.
In the work aspect, the situations are similar between Chinese and English. The proportion of each strategy is approximate. Most people choose to use conventionally indirect strategy both among Chinese and British. No one use nonconventionally indirect strategy in English and only 1% use it in Chinese. That is manly because most of people in the work will become cautious and careful so that they will not make the mistakes and keep a more harmonious relationships with others.
In the society aspect, the situation is similar to the school aspect. The proportions of direct strategy and conventionally indirect strategy are approximate and no one use nonconventionally in Chinese. While in English, 90% use conventionally indirect strategy and no one use direct strategy. This is because the social relationship is complex and mixed with too many factors. People have to be cautious about every sentence they are going to speak. So most of them prefer to use more indirect request language.
There are two reasons for the differences in the request language strategy between Chinese and English. The first one is about the culture factors. Chinese worship the collectivism. The western people worship the individualism(Pay, 1997: 85). The individualism in Britain put their personal value in the first place. British do not be influenced by others mind and emotion and they respect personal rights and actions. So western people think if you ask favor from others, it will waste others time and invade others personal freedom to some degree. This culture influences people, so that they adopt the indirect request strategy for the sake of the listeners freedom and rights. When the request language is used between parents and children, wifes and husbands, indirect request strategy is the most widely used. But the Chinese collectivism value emphasizes the group. People think the group is above everything, andemphasize the harmony of the group, the close connection between individuals and the group, and the mutual dependence between people. Under the influence of the collectivism, Chinese pay more attention to the group benefits and belongings. Besides, the Chinese is intending to build the close friendly connection between families and friends, which expresses a relationship with mutual trust and independence. Therefore, Chinese express requests through adopting the direct request strategy, especially in the friends and relatives.
The second reason that leads to the differences in the request strategy is the social factor. The request language is often constrained by many social factors. Different people with different social backgrounds will have big differences in the usage of the request language. Whether the request language in Chinese is direct or indirect depends on the Chinese traditional structure. In Chinese society, everyone has its specific identity, power, responsibility, honor and behavioral principle. What they should say or not say depend on their specific social identities. Therefore, when the higher status people and the older people propose the request to the lower status and younger, they may use direct strategy. They just need to state the request directly. And when the lower status persons express the requests to the higher status persons, indirect strategy seems appropriate for them. But in the western society, people believe in freedom. No one can give the order to others. No matter who you are, when you ask the favor from others, you have to obey the politeness principle. People are very careful not to use the language to push others. But the hints are too dark, so they would rather use conventionally indirect strategy.
5. Conclusion
This paper designs a questionnaire of request language for 30 Chinese and 10 British to complete by using the DCT. On the basis of the collected data, the differences of request language can be concluded from three aspects in the terms of syntax, discourse and the request strategies.
For syntax, there are three sentence structures: imperatives, interrogatives and declaratives. Interrogativeis the sentence structure that both Chinese and British use mostly. Nevertheless, declarative is used least in Chinese and English request language. Chinese use more imperatives especially when the relationships between the speakers and the listeners are among families and friends, while British seldom use imperatives. Both Chinese and English are inclined to use imperatives when the superior give an order to the subordinate. For the discourse, the request language generally goes through three steps: address, supportive move and head act. However, in reality, not all the sentences have every step. For example, address and supportive move are not essential, while head act is integral. Chinese always use kinds of addresses among different relationships to make the speakers sound friendly with the listeners, but in English, the addresses mostly occur when the speaker knows the listeners name especially when the relationship is close. Both of Chinese and British choose to use supportive move in most situations, and they may deem that using it is likely to make the request successful. Facing the choices of request strategies, Chinese tend to use direct strategy especially when the relationships are among the families and friends. Nevertheless, British would rather select conventionally indirect strategy to express their requests. The nonconventionally indirect strategy is scarcely chosen in both Chinese and English. This might be because there are different cultural and social factors.
When the request language are needed, other peoples habit of request must be considered first. That is a good manner to avoid some unnecessary misunderstandings. When the requests languages are used by different people, they will reflect the differences in the different cultures and social factors. Hence, the cultural and social factors of the different countries cause them to use different request languages. It made no difference between advantages and disadvantages of the Chinese and English request language. Knowing the similarities and differences between the request language of Chinese and English can help people to understand the different cultures and complete a successful communication.
Though the questionnaire is about both Chinese and English, some limitations still exist. On the one hand, the subjects includes thirty Chinese and ten Britain young women between 20 to 25 years old. The limitation is that they just stand for a group of women with a narrow age range and the quantity of subjects is not enough. On the other hand, the answers are completed through written form and those answers may be not the same as the oral communication.
All in all, there are many differences on the English and Chinese request language. When people communicate with each other, they can use the request language to help their communication to be successful. People should use the request language in the right way and understand the different aspects between the Chinese and foreign request language. The request language can lead to the communications more harmonious.
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